Islam
Everything about Islam
In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful
SECTION 1 - Introduction
INTRODUCTION TO ISLAM
Significance of the name Islam
Among the world’s major religions, Islam is unique in that its name captures its core message. It is not named after a person, unlike Christianity or Buddhism. The Prophet Muhammad is the messenger through whom Islam was revealed, but the religion itself is called Islam, and its followers are Muslims. In fact, Muhammad himself is called a Muslim in the Quran, as are earlier prophets like Abraham and Moses, indicating that Islam represents the timeless truth of submission to God.
The word Islam comes from a root meaning both “peace” and “submission.” A Muslim is one who submits to God and lives in peace with others. Submission to God means accepting His will completely. Peace with others involves not just avoiding harm but doing good. This is clearly expressed in the Quran:
No, whoever submits himself entirely to Allah and he is the doer of good [to others], he has his reward from his Lord, and there is no fear for such nor shall they grieve.
From the beginning, Islam presents itself as a religion of peace. Its two central teachings—the oneness of God and the unity of humanity—reinforce this. Islam is not portrayed as a new religion, but as the final and complete expression of the same truth preached by all prophets across time and nations.
The Quran even describes nature itself as following God’s laws, using the same root word, aslama. Everything in the universe submits to divine order, whether by choice or by design. This universal concept of submission deepens the meaning of Islam.
Legally, Islam has a dual sense: the outward acceptance of faith through the Kalimah (“There is no god but Allah, and Muhammad is His Messenger”) and the inward reality of full surrender to God. Both the new believer and the spiritually mature are Muslims—linked by their shared submission, but differing in depth of practice and understanding.
Place of Islam among world religions
Islam is the last of the great world religions—movements that reshaped nations and changed history. But it is more than the final chapter; Islam includes the truths of all previous revelations. Uniquely, it requires belief in earlier divine messages:
And [Muslims are those] who believe in what has been revealed to you [O Muhammad] and what was revealed before you…
Say: We believe in Allah and in what has been revealed to us, and in what was revealed to Abraham, and Ishmael and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and in what was given to Moses and Jesus, and in what was given to the prophets from their Lord, we make no distinction between any of them…
The Messenger believes in what has been revealed to him from his Lord, and [so do] the believers. They all believe in Allah and His angels and His Books and His messengers. We make no distinction between any of His messengers.
Thus a Muslim believes not only in the Prophet Muhammad but in all other prophets as well. And prophets were, according to the express teachings of the Holy Quran, raised up among all the nations:
And there is not a people but a warner has gone among them.
Similarly, its sacred Book, the Holy Quran, is spoken of as a combination of all the sacred scriptures of the world:
Pure pages in which are all the right books.
In addition to being the last and an all-inclusive religion, it is the perfect expression of the Divine will. Thus Allah says in the Holy Quran:
This day have I perfected for you your religion and completed My favor on you and chosen for you Islam as a religion.
Like every other form of consciousness, the religious consciousness of man has developed slowly and gradually down the ages, and the revelation of the great Truth from on high was thus brought to perfection in Islam. It is to this great truth that the words of Jesus Christ allude:
I still have many things to say to you but you cannot bear them now. However, when he, the spirit of truth, has come, he will guide you into all truth.
Islam’s mission is to unify religious truths, correct distortions, and fulfill spiritual needs for all humanity. It seeks global peace through unity—bringing together the scattered light of past revelations into one final, complete message.
New meaning introduced into religion
With Islam, religion took on a new meaning. It was no longer a rigid dogma believed just to avoid damnation, but a rational, experience-based science grounded in universal human development. Islam rejected the idea that divine revelation was limited to one chosen nation. Instead, revelation was seen as essential to human evolution—present in all cultures, from its basic forms to the higher state of prophetic guidance, given to every people.
This scientific approach to religion was reinforced by linking all doctrines to practical human conduct. Every belief is tied to action, with the aim of elevating humanity to higher levels of moral and spiritual life.
Islam also redefined the scope of religion. It shifted focus from just the afterlife to this life—teaching that awareness of the higher, eternal life is reached through righteousness here on earth. The Quran addresses far more than rituals or devotion. It covers all aspects of human life: social justice, economic systems, family laws, ethics, politics, labor relations, wealth distribution, war and peace, and even humane treatment of animals.
It offers guidance on marriage, divorce, inheritance, debt, contracts, governance, and care for the poor, orphaned, and widowed. Islam provides not only personal direction but a complete blueprint for the development of society, nations, and global relations.
Its laws and ethics foster harmony between individuals, tribes, and nations—anchored in faith in God. Islam prepares believers for the next life, but only through success in this one. It teaches that spiritual growth is inseparable from living responsibly, justly, and wisely in the world we share.
Religion is a force in the moral development of man
A cursory glance at the history of human civilization will show that religion has been the supreme force in the development of mankind to its present condition. It is through the teachings of this or that prophet that man has been able to conquer his lower nature and to set before himself the noblest ideals of selflessness and the service of humanity. A study of the noble sentiments that inspire man to-day will show their origin in the teachings and example of some great sage who had a deep faith in God and through whom was sown the seed of faith in other human hearts. The moral and ethical development of man to his present state, if due to any one cause, is due to religion. Humanity has yet to find out whether the lofty emotions which inspire man today will survive after a generation or two of Godlessness, and what sentiments materialism will bring in its train.
It is often said that religion is responsible for much of the hatred and bloodshed in the world, but a cursory glance at the his-tory of religion will show that this is a monstrous misconception. Love, concord, sympathy, kindness to one’s fellow human beings, have been the message of every religion, and every nation has learnt these essential lessons in their true purity only through the spirit of selflessness and service which a faith in God has inspired. If there have been selfishness and hatred and bloodshed, those have been there in spite of religion, not as a consequence of the message of love which religion has brought. They have been there because human nature is too prone to these things; and their presence only shows that a still greater religious awakening is required, that a truer faith in God is yet the crying need of humanity. That man sometimes turns to low and unworthy things does not show that the nobler sentiments are worthless, but only that their development has become a more urgent necessity.
Islam as the greatest unifying force in the world
Islam is undoubtedly the greatest civilizing force the world has ever known. In the seventh century C.E. it was Islam that saved it from crashing into an abyss of savagery, that came to the help of a civilization whose very foundations had collapsed, and that set about laying a new foundation and rearing an entirely new edifice of culture and ethics. A new idea of the unity of the human race as a whole, not of the unity of this or that nation, was introduced into the world — an idea so mighty that it welded together nations which had warred with one another since the world began. It not only cemented together the warring tribes of one country but also established a brotherhood of all nations of the world, even uniting those which had nothing in common except their common humanity. It obliterated differences of colour, race, language, geographical boundaries and even of culture. It united man with man as such, and the hearts of those in the far east began to beat in unison with the hearts of those in the farthest west. Indeed, it proved to be not only the greatest but the only force unifying man, because, whereas other religions had succeeded merely in unifying the different elements of a single race, Islam actually achieved the unification of many races, and harmonized the jarring and discordant elements of humanity.
Islam laid the basis of a unity of the human race beyond which human conception cannot go. It recognized the equality not only of the civil and political rights of people, but also of their spiritual rights. “Mankind is a single nation”5 is the fundamental doctrine of Islam, and for that reason every nation is recognized as having received the spiritual gift of revelation.
Islam as the greatest spiritual force of the world
Equally great is the unparalleled transformation which Islam has brought about in the world; for it has proved itself to be a spiritual force the equal of which the human race has never known. Its miraculous transformation of world conditions was brought about in an incredibly short time. It swept away the vilest superstitions, the crassest ignorance, the rank immorality, the old evil habits of centuries over centuries in less than a quarter of a century. That its spiritual conquests are without parallel in history is an undeniable fact, and it is because of the unparalleled spiritual transformation effected by him that the Holy Prophet Muhammad is admitted to be the “most successful of all prophets and religious personalities.” 6
Islam offers a solution of the great world problems
Islam is not only the most civilizing and the greatest spiritual force of the world but also offers a solution of the most baffling problems which confront mankind today. Materialism, which has become humanity’s ideal in modern times, can never bring about peace and mutual trust among the nations of the world. Islam is the only force which has already succeeded in blotting out race and colour distinctions and it is through Islam only that this great problem of the modern world can be solved.
Islam is, first and foremost, an international religion, and it is only before its grand international ideal — the ideal of the equality of all races and of the unity of the human race — that the curse of nationalism, which has been and is responsible for the troubles of the ancient and the modern worlds, can be swept away. But even within the boundaries of a nation or a country there can be no peace as long as a just solution of the two great problems of wealth and sex cannot be found.
Modern nations have gone to two extremes on the wealth question: capitalism and communism. There is either the tendency to concentrate wealth among the great capitalists, or, by community of wealth, to bring the indolent and the industrious to one level. Islam offers the true solution by ensuring to the worker the reward of his work, great or small, in accordance with the merit of the work, and also by allotting to the poor a share in the wealth of the rich. Thus, while the rights of property are maintained in their true sense, arrangements are made for equalizing conditions by taking a part of the wealth of the rich and distributing it among the poor.
Similarly, Islam’s solution of the sex question is the only one that can ensure ultimate peace to the family. There is neither the free-love which would loosen all ties of social relations, nor the indissoluble binding of man and woman which turns many a home into a veritable hell. And, by solving these and a hundred other problems, Islam — as its very name indicates — can bring true happiness to the human race.
Misconceptions underlying criticism of religion
Three chief objections to religion are raised by modern anti-religious movements:
1. That religion helps in the maintenance of the present social system, which has borne the fruit of capitalism with the consequent crushing of the aspirations of the poor.
2. That it keeps the people subject to superstition and thus hinders the advance of sciences.
3. That it teaches people to pray for their needs instead of working for them and thus it makes them indolent.
In the case of Islam, these claims collapse under scrutiny. Islam stood from the outset as a champion of the poor. It uplifted the lowest classes, turning slaves into scholars, leaders, and rulers. Its social system is built on real equality—one of the few in history to implement this fully. Islam makes the poor rightful stakeholders in society by mandating that the wealthy give a portion (2.5%) of their annual wealth to the needy, enforced through the state. This is not charity—it's a right.
As for science, Islam never hindered it; it launched it. In a land once buried in superstition, Islam ignited a cultural and intellectual revolution. As early as the caliphate of Umar, mass education became a state priority. Wherever Muslims ruled, schools and universities flourished. The Islamic world preserved and expanded human knowledge, eventually sparking the European Renaissance. Islam, far from opposing science, made it thrive.
The third charge—that Islam encourages idleness through prayer—is also false. The Quran is clear:
Man can have nothing but what he strives for.
Islam instilled this ethic in the Arab people, once among the most backward, transforming them into pioneers of thought, governance, and progress. Prayer in Islam is not passive. It renews strength and sharpens resolve. It teaches reliance on God, not as an excuse to wait, but as fuel to keep striving—especially when facing setbacks.
Islam proves that religion can drive both moral progress and practical success. Its teachings promote justice, knowledge, and action—not stagnation.
SECTION 2 - Source of Islam (#1)
THE HOLY QURAN
How and when the Quran was revealed?
The Quran is the original and supreme source of all Islamic beliefs, principles, and laws. While other sources—Hadith (the Prophet’s sayings and actions), ijmaʿ (consensus), and qiyas (reasoning)—are often cited, all ultimately trace back to the Quran. The Hadith serves only to clarify or explain the Quran, and both ijmaʿ and qiyas are valid only when rooted in it. Thus, the Quran is the final authority in all Islamic matters.
The name Quran is frequently mentioned in the book itself 1 which also states to whom, how, why, when, and in what language, it was delivered. It was revealed to Muhammad:
And those who believe and do good and believe in that which has been revealed to Muhammad — and it is the Truth from their Lord.
Its revelation commenced in the month of Ramadan on a certain night which, from then on, received the name of the Night of Majesty (Lailat al-Qadr):
The month of Ramadan is that in which the Quran was re-vealed…
We revealed it on a blessed night…
Surely We revealed it on the Night of Majesty.
It was revealed in the Arabic language:
So We have made it easy in your tongue [O Prophet] that they may be mindful.
Surely We have made it an Arabic Quran that you [O people] may understand.
It was revealed in portions, every portion being written and committed to memory as soon as it was revealed, and the revelation was spread over twenty-three years of the Holy Prophet’s life, during which time he was occupied solely with the reformation of a benighted world:
And it is a Quran which We have made distinct, so that you may read it to the people by slow degrees, and We have revealed it in portions.
It was not the Prophet who spoke under influence of the Holy Spirit; it was a Divine Message brought by the angel Gabriel, and delivered in words to the Holy Prophet who communicated it to mankind. He is told in the Quran:
And surely this is a revelation from the Lord of the worlds. The Faithful Spirit has brought it on your heart that you may be a warner, in plain Arabic language.
Whoever is an enemy to Gabriel — for surely he revealed it to your heart by Allah’s command…
The Holy Spirit has revealed it from your Lord with the truth…
Both “Holy Spirit” and “Gabriel” are used interchangeably in the Quran and Hadith. The same concept of divine communication through Gabriel existed in Judaism and early Christianity. The Christian notion of the “Holy Ghost,” however, is unique to later Christian theology and not found in Jewish or Quranic traditions.
It is the highest form of revelation
Though the Quran was revealed in parts over time, it is a complete, unified message, delivered through a single, consistent method. According to the Quran, revelation (waḥy) comes to humanity in three forms:
And it is not granted to a mortal that Allah should speak to him, except by revelation (wahy) or from behind a veil, or by sending a messenger and revealing by His permission what He pleases.
The first form—wahy—is a sudden, direct inspiration. It enters the heart like a flash, not through logical reasoning but as a divine idea that clears confusion or offers insight. It is not delivered in words but through inner understanding.
The second form is communication from “behind a veil”—meaning visions or dreams in which symbols are seen or words are heard, carrying deeper meaning. This mode is indirect and veiled in mystery.
The third—and highest—form is when God sends an angel, typically Gabriel (also known as the Holy Spirit), who delivers the message in clear, verbal form. This is reserved exclusively for prophets, those tasked with major responsibilities toward humanity.
This highest form of revelation is not just spiritual insight but includes actual words from God. The prophet receives them fully and consciously, distinct from other types of inspiration. This is called wahy matluww—recited revelation.
The Quran is entirely wahy matluww. From start to finish, it consists solely of verbal revelation delivered by Gabriel to the Prophet Muhammad. It does not mix in other forms like visions or personal inspiration. Every verse was conveyed in exact words, memorized, and recorded. This makes the Quran unique—it is the highest, purest form of divine revelation, preserved in language, meaning, and form exactly as it was revealed.
Other forms of Divine revelation to human beings (Wahy, Kashf etc)
As stated above, prophets also received the two lower forms of Divine revelation. For example, we are told in Hadith reports that before the higher message came to the Prophet Muhammad — i.e., before he received the first Quranic revelation — he used to have clear and true visions:2
The first of revelations that came to the Messenger of Allah were good visions so that he did not see a vision but it came out true as the dawn of the day.
This is the second mode of revelation mentioned earlier. The details of laws as later expounded by Holy Prophet, and as met with in his practice, belong to the first form of revelation, an idea in-stilled into the mind, which is called “inner revelation” (wahy khafiyy).
In the lower forms, revelation is still granted to the righteous from among the followers of the Holy Prophet and even to others, for, as will be shown later, revelation in the lowest form is the universal experience of humanity. There is also a difference as to the method in which the different kinds of revelation are received. While the two lower forms of revelation involve but little change in the normal condition of a person, whether awake or asleep, and he is only occasionally transported to a state of trance, the highest form, which is that peculiar to the prophets, brings with it a violent change; it does, in fact, require a real passing from one world to the other, while the recipient is in a state of perfect wakefulness, and the burden of revelation is not only felt by him but is also visible to those who see him.
The Holy Prophet’s experience of revelation
The Holy Prophet first experienced the higher revelation while he was alone in the cave of Hira. Before this, he had from time to time seen visions, but when the angel came with the higher message, he found himself quite exhausted:
He [Gabriel] seized me and squeezed me to such an extent that I was quite exhausted,
and this was repeated three times.14 And even after he reached home, the effect of exhaustion was still upon him and he had to lie down, covered over, before he could relate what had befallen. It was an equally hard experience when the second message came to him af-ter an interval of some months. And even afterwards, the effect of the Spirit upon him was so great that on the coldest of days perspi-ration would run down his forehead: “I saw”, says Aishah, his wife, “revelation coming down upon him in the severest cold, and when that condition was over, perspiration ran down his forehead”.15 Zaid ibn Thabit relates that he was sitting with his leg under that of the Holy Prophet when revelation came down upon him, and he felt as if his leg would be crushed under the weight.16
Nature of the Holy Prophet’s revelation
When it was once enquired of the Holy Prophet how revelation came to him, he replied:17
It comes to me sometimes as the ringing of a bell and this is hardest on me, then he [the angel] leaves me and I remember from him what he says; and sometimes the angel comes in the shape of a man and he talks to me and I remember what he says.
These are the only two forms in which the Quranic revelation came to the Holy Prophet. In both cases, the angel came to him and was seen by him; in both cases, a certain message was delivered in words which he at once committed to memory. That is the essence of the whole question. The only difference between the two cases was that in one case the angel appeared in the shape of a human being and uttered the words in a soft tone as a man talks to another; in the other case, it is not stated in what form he came, but we are told that the words were uttered like the ringing of a bell, that is to say, in a harsh, hard tone, which made it a heavier task for the Prophet to receive them. But still it was the angel who brought the message, as is shown by the use of the personal pronoun he in the first part of the report. In both cases the Prophet was transported, as it were, to another world, and this transportation caused him to go through a severe experience which made him perspire even on a cold day, but this experience was harder still when the deliverer of the message did not appear in human shape and there remained no affinity between the deliverer and the recipient. But whether the angel appeared in human shape or not, whether the message was delivered in a hard or soft tone, the one thing certain is that it was a message delivered in words; and therefore the Quranic revelation is entirely one message delivered in one form.
It should be noted that the Holy Prophet often received the message while sitting with his Companions, but the latter never saw the angel nor ever heard the words of revelation. It was, therefore, with other than the normal human senses that the Prophet saw the angel and heard his words, and it was really the granting of these other senses that is called transportation to another world.
Arrangement of the Quran
Though the Holy Quran was revealed in portions, it did not remain long in that fragmentary condition. As its name implies, it was a book from the first, and though it could not be complete until the last verse was revealed, it was never without some form of arrangement. There is the clearest testimony, internal as well as external, that every single verse or part of a verse and every chapter that was revealed had its own definite place in the Book. The Quran is itself clear on this point:
And those who disbelieve say: Why has not the Quran been revealed to him all at once? Thus [it is] that We may strengthen your heart by it, and We have arranged it well in arranging.
The arrangement of the Quran was thus a part of the Divine scheme. Another verse showing that the collection of the Book was a part of the Divine scheme runs thus:
Surely on Us rests the collecting of it and the reciting of it.
It appears from this that just as the Quran was recited by Gabriel to the Holy Prophet, in like manner, the collecting of its various parts was effected by the Prophet under the guidance of the Holy Spirit. History also bears testimony to the truth of this statement, for not only are there numerous anecdotes showing that this or that portion of the Quran was put to writing under the orders of the Holy Prophet, but we are clearly told by Uthman, the third Caliph, that every portion of the Book was written, and given its specified place, at the bidding of the Prophet:
It was customary with the Messenger of Allah (may peace and the blessings of Allah be upon him) that when portions of different chapters were revealed to him, and when any verse was revealed, he called one of those persons who used to write the Quran and said to him: Write this verse in the chapter where such and such verses occur.
Arrangement in oral recitation
In fact, if we bear in mind the use that was made of the Holy Quran, we cannot for an instant entertain the idea that the Book existed without any arrangement of its verses and chapters in the lifetime of the Holy Prophet. It was not only recited in prayers but committed to memory and regularly recited to keep it fresh in the mind. Now if an arrangement of verses and chapters had not existed, it would have been impossible either to recite it in public prayers or to commit it to memory. The slightest change in the place of a verse by the man leading the prayers would at once call forth a correction from the audience, as it does at the present day. Since no one could take the liberty of changing a word or the place of a word in a verse, no one could change a verse or the place of a verse in a chapter; and so the committing of the Quran to memory by so many of the Companions of the Holy Prophet, and their constant recitation of it, would have been impossible unless a known order was followed. The Holy Prophet could not teach the Quran to his Companions nor the Companions to each other, nor could he or anyone else lead the public prayers, in which long portions of the Book were recited, without following a known and accepted order.
Complete written copies of the Quran
The Holy Quran thus existed in a complete and ordered form in the memories of men, but no complete written copy of it existed at the time, nor could such a copy be made while the Holy Prophet was alive, and still receiving revelations. But the whole of the Quran in one arrangement was safely preserved in the memories of reciters.
It happened, however, that many of the reciters fell in the famous battle of Yamama, in the caliphate of Abu Bakr,18 and it was then that Umar19 urged upon him the necessity of compiling a standard written copy, so that no portion of the Quran should be lost even if all the reciters were to die. And this copy was compiled, not from the hundreds of copies that had been made by individual Companions for their own use but from the manuscripts written under the direction of the Holy Prophet himself, and the arrangement adopted was that of the oral recitation as followed in his time. Zaid ibn Thabit was chosen for the task of collecting and compiling the Quranic writings since, during the Holy Prophet’s life at Madinah, he had done by far the greater part of the work of writing his revelations.20
Thus a standard written copy was prepared, which was entrusted to the care of Hafsah, wife of the Prophet.21 But still no arrangement had been made for securing the accuracy of the numerous copies that were in circulation. This was done by Uthman22 who ordered several copies to be made of the copy prepared in the time of the first Caliph, and these were then sent to the different Islamic centres so that all copies made by individuals should be compared with the standard copy at each centre.
Standardization of the Quran
Thus Abu Bakr ordered a standard copy to be prepared from the manuscripts written in the presence of the Holy Prophet, following the order of chapters which was followed by the reciters under the directions of the Holy Prophet, and Uthman ordered copies to be made from this standard copy. If there was any variation from that standard copy, it went no further than this that where the Quraish wrote a word in one way and Zaid ibn Thabit wrote it in another way, Uthman’s order was to write it in the manner of the Quraish. This was because Zaid belonged to Madinah while his colleagues were Quraish, which was the leading tribe of Makkah, the Holy Prophet Muhammad himself belonging to the Banu Hashim branch of this tribe.
Differences of readings
There were slight differences in the spoken language of different tribes, that of the Quraish being the model for the literary language. The Holy Quran was revealed in the dialect of the Quraish, the literary language of Arabia. But when, towards the close of the Holy Prophet’s life, people from different Arabian tribes accepted Islam in large numbers, it was found that they could not pronounce certain words in the idiom of the Quraish, being habituated from childhood to their own idiom, and it was then that the Holy Prophet allowed them to pronounce a word according to their own peculiar idiom. This permission was given only to facilitate the recitation of the Quran. The written Quran was one; it was all in the chaste idi-om of the Quraish, but certain people belonging to other tribes were allowed to pronounce it in their own way.
There may have been certain revelations in which an optional reading was permitted. Readings belonging to this class can only be accepted on the most unimpeachable evidence, and the trustworthiness of the Hadith reports containing such readings must be established beyond all doubt. But even these readings do not find their way into the written text, which remains permanently one and the same. Their value is only explanatory: they only show what significance is to be attached to the word used in the text; they are never at variance with the text. They are known to very few even of the learned, to say nothing of the general readers of the Holy Book, and are considered to have the value of an authentic Hadith report in explaining the meaning of a certain word occurring in the text.
Thus, the so-called different readings were either dialectic variations, which were never meant to be permanent and intended only to facilitate the reading of the Quran in individual cases, or explanatory variations meant to throw light on the text. The former ceased to exist with the spread of education in Arabia, and the latter have still the same explanatory value as they originally had.
Collective testimony of the purity of the Quranic text
Random reports that a certain verse or chapter, not to be met with in the Quran, was part of the text, have no value at all as against the conclusive and collective testimony which establishes the purity of the text of the Holy Quran. It is a fact that every verse of the Quran was, when revealed, promulgated and made public; it became a part of the public prayer and was repeated day and night to be listened to by an audience of hundreds. When the written manuscripts of the Quran were first collected into one volume in the time of the first Caliph Abu Bakr, and later on when copies were made from that original in the time of the third Caliph Uthman, there was the unanimous testimony of all the Companions that every verse that found a place in that collection was part of the Divine revelation. Such testimony of overwhelming numbers cannot be set aside by the evidence of one or two, but, as a matter of fact, all reports quoted as affecting the purity of the text ascribe a certain statement to only one man, and in not a single case is there a second person to support that assertion.
The theory of abrogation
The idea that some Quranic verses were abrogated by others has been widely refuted. The two Quranic verses used to support this theory actually refer to the replacement of earlier scriptures—not Quranic verses—with the Quran.
And when We change a message for a message — and Allah knows best what He reveals — they say: You are only a forger.
Since this was revealed before Islamic laws were introduced in Madinah, it cannot refer to internal Quranic abrogation. The verse addresses critics who claimed Muhammad was inventing revelations. They weren’t objecting to changed verses, but to the Quran replacing earlier revelations. They said, “Only a mortal teaches him” (16:103), suggesting the entire Quran was man-made.
The other verse which is supposed to lend support to the theory runs thus:
Whatever message We abrogate or cause to be forgotten, We bring one better than it or one like it.
Here, Jews are the audience. They accepted their own scriptures but rejected the Quran. This verse tells them that earlier revelations may be replaced with better or similar ones. The phrase “or cause to be forgotten” cannot apply to the Quran, which was fully preserved and never forgotten.
It’s illogical to think God would make the Prophet forget a verse only to send a new one in its place. If forgetfulness occurred, a reminder would suffice. Yet the Quran affirms:
We shall make you recite, so you shall not forget.
The Prophet, though illiterate, never forgot any verse of the Quran. Entire chapters were revealed to him and then immediately memorized, recorded, taught to others, and recited in prayer—without a single word lost.
Meanwhile, earlier scriptures had been partially lost or altered, which justified the Quran’s role in replacing them. The true abrogation referred to in these verses is of past revelations, not of the Quran itself.
Hadith on abrogation
It is quite strange that the theory of abrogation has been accepted by writer after writer without ever thinking that not a single report in Hadith, however weak, touching on the abrogation of a verse, was traceable to the Holy Prophet. It never occurred to the upholders of this theory that the Quranic verses were promulgated by the Holy Prophet, and that it was he whose authority was necessary for the abrogation of any Quranic verse; no Companion, not even Abu Bakr or Ali, could say that a verse was abrogated. The Holy Prophet alone was entitled to say so, and there is not a single hadith to the effect that he ever said so; it is always some Companion or a later authority to whom such views are to be traced.
In most cases, where a report is traceable to one Companion who held a certain verse to have been abrogated, there is another report traceable to another Companion to the effect that the verse was not abrogated.23 Even among later writers we find that there is not a single verse on which the verdict of abrogation has been passed by one without being questioned by another; and while there are writers who would lightly pass the verdict of abrogation on hundreds of verses, there are others who consider not more than five to be abrogated, and even in the case of these five the verdict of abrogation has been seriously impugned by earlier writers.
Use of the word 'naskh'
The theory of abrogation has in fact arisen from a misunderstanding of the use of the word naskh (abrogation) by the Companions of the Holy Prophet. When the significance of one verse was limited by another, the former was sometimes spoken of as having been “abrogated” (nusikhat) by the latter. Similarly when the words of a verse gave rise to a misconception, and a later revelation cleared up that misconception, the word “abrogation” was metaphorically used in connection with it, the idea underlying its use being not that the first verse was abrogated but that a certain conception to which it had given rise was abrogated. Earlier authorities admit that abrogation means explanation metaphorically. It is an abrogation, but not an abrogation of the words of the Quran; rather it is the abrogation of a misconception of their meaning. This is further made clear by the application of abrogation to verses containing statements of facts, whereas, properly speaking, abrogation could only take place in the case of verses containing a commandment or a prohibition. This use of the word “abrogation” by the earlier authorities regarding statements of facts shows that they were using the word to signify the removal of a wrong conception regarding, or the placing of a limitation upon, the meaning of a certain verse. At the same time, it is true that the use of this word soon became indiscriminate, and when anyone found him-self unable to reconcile two verses, he would declare one of them to be abrogated by the other.
Basis of abrogation
The principle on which the theory of abrogation is based is unacceptable, being contrary to the clear teachings of the Quran. A verse is considered to be abrogated by another when the two cannot be reconciled with each other; in other words, when they appear to contradict each other. But the Quran destroys this foundation when it declares that no part of it is at variance with another:
Will they not then meditate on the Quran? And if it were from any other than Allah, they would have found in it many a discrepancy.
It was due to lack of reflection that one verse was thought to be at variance with another; and hence it is that in almost all cases where abrogation has been upheld by one person, there has been another who, being able to reconcile the two, has repudiated the alleged abrogation.
Later commentators on abrogation
It is only among the later commentators that we meet with the tendency to augment the number of verses thought to have been abrogated, and by some of these the figure has been placed as high as five hundred. In this connection, Sayuti, one of the well-known commentators, says: “Those who multiply [the number of abrogated verses] have included many kinds — one kind being that in which there is neither abrogation, nor any particularization [of a general statement], nor has it any connection with any one of them, for various reasons.” Sayuti himself brings the number of verses which he thinks to be abrogated down to twenty-one, but he admits that there is a difference of opinion even about these.24
Interpretation of the Quran
The rule as to the interpretation of the Quran is thus given in the Holy Book itself:
He it is Who has revealed the Book to you; some of its verses are decisive — they are the basis of the Book — and others are allegorical. Then those in whose hearts is perversity follow the part of it which is allegorical, seeking to mislead, and seeking to give it [their own] interpretation. And none knows its interpretation except Allah, and those firmly rooted in knowledge. They say: We believe in it, it is all from our Lord. And none are mindful except those who have understanding.
This verse establishes four key points:
— The Quran contains two kinds of verses: decisive (clear and foundational) and allegorical (open to interpretation).
— The decisive verses form the core of the Quran and outline the essential principles of Islam. Any differences in interpretation relate only to secondary matters.
— Misinterpretation arises when people follow the allegorical verses with bias, giving them meanings that mislead.
— The proper response to unclear verses is to view them in harmony with the rest of the Book: “All is from our Lord.” This prevents contradiction and is reinforced in another verse: “Do they not reflect on the Quran? If it were from any other than Allah, they would have found in it many contradictions.” (4:82)
Based on this, the following interpretive rules apply:
1. Principles of Islam must be based on clear, decisive verses. Allegorical passages should not be used to establish doctrine.
2. The Quran must interpret itself. What is hinted at in one place is explained in detail elsewhere.
3. Allegorical or metaphorical verses must be understood in light of clear teachings. Their interpretation must align with established truths.
4. Any statement with unclear or conflicting meaning must be interpreted in a way that supports, not contradicts, clearly stated laws and principles.
This approach is followed by “those firmly rooted in knowledge,” who use the Quran’s internal coherence as their guide. True understanding lies in seeking consistency and rejecting interpretations that clash with the Quran’s core teachings.
Value of Hadith and commentaries in interpreting the Quran
Hadith also affords an explanation of the Holy Quran but a report can only be accepted when it is reliable and not opposed to what is clearly stated in the Quran. As regards commentaries, a word of warning is necessary against the tendency to regard what is stated in them as being the final word on interpretation, since by so doing the great treasures of knowledge which an exposition of the Holy Quran in the new light of modern progress reveals are shut out, and the Quran becomes a sealed book to the present generation. The learned men of old all freely sought its meaning according to their understanding and circumstances, and the same right belongs to the present generation. It must also be added that though the commentaries are valuable stores of learning for a knowledge of the Quran, the numerous anecdotes and legends with which many of them are filled can only be accepted with the greatest caution and after the most careful sifting.
Divisions of the Quran (Surah, Rukuh, Ayah, Juz, Manzil)
The Holy Quran is divided into 114 chapters, each of which is called a surah, meaning literally eminence or high degree and also any degree of a structure. The chapters are of varying length, the longest comprising one-twelfth of the entire Book. All the chapters, with the exception of the last thirty-five, are divided into sections, each section or ruku‘ dealing generally with one subject, and the different sections being interrelated to each other.25 Each section contains a number of verses, a verse being known as an ayah. The total number of verses is more than 6000.
For the purpose of recitation, the Quran is divided into thirty equal parts (juz’), each of these being again subdivided into four equal parts. Another division is into seven portions (manzil), which is designed for the completion of its recital in seven days. These divisions for the purpose of recitation have nothing to do with the subject-matter of the Holy Quran.
Makkah and Madinah chapters
An important division of the Quran relates to the Makkah and Madinah chapters. After the Divine Call to prophethood, the Holy Prophet passed 13 years at Makkah, and was then forced to migrate with his Companions to Madinah where he spent the last ten years of his life. Out of the total of 114 chapters of the Book, 92 were revealed during the Makkah period and 22 during the Madinah period, but the Madinah chapters, being generally longer, contain about one-third of the Holy Book. In arrangement, the Makkah rev-elation is intermingled with that of Madinah.
On referring to the subject-matter of the Makkah and Madinah revelations, we find the following three broad features distinguishing the two groups of chapters. Firstly, the Makkah revelation deals chiefly with faith in God and is particularly devoted to grounding the Muslims in that faith, while the Madinah revelation is mainly intended to translate that faith into action. It is true that exhortations to good and noble deeds are met with in the Makkah revelation, and in the Madinah revelation faith is still shown to be the foundation on which the structure of deeds should be built, but, in the main, stress is laid in the former on faith in an Omnipotent and Omnipresent God Who requites every good and every evil deed, and the latter deals chiefly with what is good and what is evil, in other words, with the details of the law. The second feature distinguishing the two revelations is that while that of Makkah is generally prophetical, that of Madinah deals with the fulfilment of prophecy. Thirdly, while the former shows how true happiness of mind may be sought in communion with God, the latter points out how man’s dealing with man may also be a source of bliss and comfort to him. Hence a rational arrangement of the Quran must of necessity rest on the intermingling of the two revelations, blending of faith with deeds, of prophecy with fulfilment of prophecy, of Divine communion with man’s relation to and treatment of man.
The place of the Quran in world literature
The Quran holds an unmatched position in Arabic literature—and in global literary history. No other book has remained the linguistic standard for its language while also generating a vast, global literary tradition.
Before the Quran, Arabic had little literature—mostly tribal poetry praising wine, war, or women. With the Quran, Arabic was elevated from a regional dialect to a global language, the foundation of powerful empires and cultures. It gave rise to a vast literature and shaped the intellectual heritage of nations across continents. Without the Quran, Arabic would never have held the prominence it does today.
But the Quran’s literary value is only part of its uniqueness. It addresses the central themes of religion—God’s unity, life after death, reward and punishment, revelation, and the unseen. Yet it also speaks directly to practical human concerns: wealth distribution, family relations, justice, and ethics. Unlike books that rely on dogma, the Quran offers arguments and reasoning for every principle it presents. It combines faith with logic and spirituality with real-world solutions.
The Quran’s intellectual richness extends to hundreds of subjects, always with clarity, depth, and reason. Its style is persuasive, not forceful—appealing to both the heart and mind.
What truly sets the Quran apart is the transformation it sparked. In just 23 years, it turned a fragmented, idol-worshipping society into a united people devoted to one God. Superstition gave way to rational belief. Illiteracy was replaced with a thirst for knowledge. Deep-rooted vices were exchanged for virtue and service.
This transformation wasn’t just personal—it reshaped families, society, and nations. It forged unity from tribal conflict and built a civilization so dynamic that it shook the great empires of its time. The Quran ignited an intellectual, moral, and spiritual awakening without parallel in human history.
SECTION 3 - Source of Islam (#2)
THE HADITH
Sunnah and Hadith
Sunnah or Hadith (the practice and the sayings of the Holy Prophet Muhammad) is the second and undoubtedly secondary source from which the teachings of Islam are drawn. In its original sense Sunnah indicates the doings and Hadith the sayings of the Holy Prophet; but in effect both cover the same ground and are applicable to his actions, practices, and sayings, Hadith being the narration and record of the Sunnah but containing, in addition, various prophetical and historical elements.
Any student of the Quran will see that the Holy Book generally deals with the broad principles or essentials of religion, going into details in rare cases. The details were supplied by the Holy Prophet himself, either by showing in his practice how an injunction was to be carried out, or by giving an explanation in words. The two most important religious institutions of Islam, for instance, are prayer and the compulsory charity known as zakat; yet when the injunctions relating to these were delivered — and they are repeatedly met with both in Makkah and Madinah revelations — no details were sup-plied. It was the Holy Prophet himself who by his own actions gave the details of the prayer service and the rules and regulations for the collection and payment of zakat. These are but two examples; but since Islam covered the whole sphere of human activity, hundreds of points had to be explained by the Holy Prophet by his example in action and word, while on the moral side, his was the pattern which every Muslim was required to follow.25 Whoever, therefore, embraced Islam stood in immediate need of both the Quran and the Sunnah.
Transmission of Hadith in Holy Prophet’s lifetime
The transmission of the practices and sayings of the Holy Prophet, from one person to another, thus became necessary during the Prophet’s lifetime. In fact, the Holy Prophet himself used to give instructions about the transmission of what he taught. Thus when a deputation of the tribe of Rabi‘ah came to wait upon him in the early days of Madinah, he concluded his instructions to them with the words:
Remember this and report it to those whom you have left behind.
There is another report according to which, on the occasion of a pilgrimage, the Holy Prophet, after enjoining on the Muslims the duty of holding sacred each other’s life, property and honour, added:
He who is present here should carry this message to him who is absent.
Again, there is ample historical evidence that whenever a people embraced Islam, the Holy Prophet used to send them one or more of his missionaries who not only taught them the Quran but also explained to them how its injunctions were to be carried out in practice. And the Companions of the Prophet knew full well that his actions and practices were to be followed, should no express direction be met with in the Quran. It is related that when Mu‘adh ibn Jabal, on being appointed Governor of Yaman by the Holy Prophet, was asked how he would judge cases, his reply was, “by the Book of Allah.” Asked what he would do if he did not find a direction in the Book of Allah, he replied “by the Sunnah of the Messenger of Allah”.26 The Sunnah was, therefore, recognized in the very lifetime of the Holy Prophet as affording guidance in religious matters.
Preservation of Hadith in Holy Prophet’s lifetime
The preservation of the Prophet Muhammad’s sayings and actions (Hadith) was not left to later generations—it began during his lifetime. His Companions not only followed his teachings but also took care to preserve them both in memory and writing, knowing their importance for the future.
One Companion once complained about forgetting the Prophet’s words. The Prophet advised him to "seek the help of your right hand"—a reference to writing. Abdullah ibn Amr reported:
I used to write everything that I heard from the Messenger of Allah, intending to commit it to memory. [On some people taking objection to this] I spoke about it to the Messenger of Allah … who said: ‘Write down, for I only speak the truth’.
This shows that while oral transmission was the norm, writing Hadith was practiced when needed. The Prophet at times discouraged writing—not because it was forbidden, but out of concern that his sayings might be confused with Quranic revelation. He wanted to protect the purity of the Quran. However, this caution did not amount to a ban. In fact, during the conquest of Makkah, he ordered a saying to be written when requested. He also sent written letters and signed treaties, confirming his approval of written records when appropriate.
Memorization was a trusted and powerful method. The Quran itself was preserved this way—both orally and in writing. The Arabs had exceptional memory skills. They preserved entire poems, oral histories, and chains of narration with accuracy. Pre-Islamic poetry survived intact through this tradition.
Later scholars like Imam Bukhari memorized hundreds of thousands of Hadiths. His memory was so precise that students compared their written notes to what he recalled by heart—correcting their texts accordingly. Thus, Hadith preservation began early, with both memory and writing ensuring accuracy. It was deliberate, disciplined, and deeply rooted in the Prophet’s own guidance.
Collection of Hadith: First stage
The collection of Hadith began during the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad, though not all followers had the same opportunity or interest in preserving his sayings. A group known as Ashab al-Suffah—students who lived in the Prophet’s Mosque—were particularly dedicated. Many had little or no concern for worldly gain and devoted themselves entirely to learning and teaching religion.
Among them, the most prominent was Abu Hurairah, who stayed constantly with the Prophet and memorized everything he said or did. Defending his large number of narrations, he explained:
“You say, Abu Hurairah is profuse in narrating hadith from the Messenger of Allah; and you say, How is it that the Refugees (Muhajirin) and the Helpers (Ansar) do not narrate hadith from the Messenger of Allah like Abu Hurairah? The truth is that our brethren from among the Refugees were occupied in transacting business in the market and I used to remain with the Prophet having filled my belly; so I was present when they were absent and I remembered what they forgot; and our brethren from among the Helpers were occupied with work on their lands, and I was a poor man from among the poor inmates of the Suffah, so I retained what they forgot.”
Another key figure in Hadith preservation was Aishah RA, the Prophet’s wife. She combined exceptional memory with sharp reasoning. She accepted nothing blindly—not even from the Prophet—without full understanding. Her rigorous questioning shows how seriously Hadith authenticity was taken from the start.
Abdullah ibn Umar, Abdullah ibn Abbas, and Abdullah ibn Amr were also dedicated to preserving the Prophet’s teachings. Abdullah ibn Amr notably wrote down Hadith, confirming that both memory and writing were used early on.
Every Companion preserved what they heard, and the Prophet encouraged it. He would often end important statements with:
Let him who is present deliver it to the one who is absent.
This call to transmit his words ensured that the process of Hadith collection and transmission began immediately—rooted in the Prophet’s own instruction and the commitment of his closest followers.
Collection of Hadith: Second stage
After the Prophet Muhammad’s death, the collection of Hadith entered its second phase. Legal and social issues now had to be resolved by referring to either the Quran or the Prophet’s sayings and judgments, which gained increasing importance. Many rulings were based on Hadith, and proof of their authenticity was often requested. As cases arose, previously little-known sayings became more widely recognized and verified by direct witnesses.
Islam’s rapid spread brought many new converts who had never seen the Prophet. Yet they were deeply moved by the transformation he had led. Naturally, they wanted to learn everything about the man who had changed their world. Companions became living sources of knowledge, and because the events were still fresh in memory, the Hadith they transmitted retained accuracy and clarity.
The Prophet’s profound impact on Arabia—within just two decades—helped preserve the historical record. In ten years after his death, Islam had already crossed Arabia’s borders. His life, teachings, and actions became matters of common knowledge, discussed by both followers and critics. Every incident was widely known before it could fade from memory.
To the Companions, the Prophet’s message was the greatest divine gift, and sharing it became their life’s mission. The Prophet had told them to pass on what they saw and heard. They obeyed, spreading far and wide with the Quran and Hadith. Key individuals like Aishah, Abu Hurairah, Abdullah ibn Abbas, and others became hubs of learning. People traveled from across the Muslim world to learn from them.
This thirst for knowledge was so intense that students would travel long distances just to verify a single hadith. The Hadith became a living tradition, preserved through study, travel, and a deep sense of duty—laying the foundation for the next stage of compilation and authentication.
Collection of Hadith: Third stage
With the passing of the generation that had seen and heard the Holy Prophet, the work of the collection of Hadith entered upon a third stage. There were no more reports to be investigated from different persons, and the whole of Hadith was now the property of teachers who taught at various centres, and, therefore, it could all be learnt by visiting these centres.
At this stage, moreover, the writing of Hadith became more common. The large number of the students at different centres, having abundance of material to digest, to which was also added the further task of remembering the names of the transmitters, sought aid from the pen, so that the work might be easier. There was now no fear of the Hadith being confused with the Quran. However, at this stage the Hadith reports were written merely as an aid to memory; the mere fact that a report was found among the manuscripts of a person was no evidence of its authenticity, which could be established only by tracing it to a reliable transmitter.
Umar ibn Abdul Aziz, commonly known as Umar II, the Umayyad Caliph, who ruled towards the close of the first century of Hijrah, was the first man to issue definite orders to the effect that written collections of Hadith reports should be made. But he died after a short reign of two and a half years, and his successor does not seem to have been interested in the matter. Even if a collection had been made in pursuance of these orders, which is very doubtful, no copy has reached us. But the work was taken up independently of government patronage in the next century.
Collection of Hadith: Fourth stage
Before the middle of the second century of Hijrah, Hadith started to assume a more permanent shape, and written collections began to appear. Hundreds of students were engaged in the work of learning Hadith in the various centres, but with every new teacher and student the work of preserving the name of the transmitter along with the text was becoming more difficult. Written collections had thus become indispensable. By far the most important of these collections is the Muwatta of Imam Malik ibn Anas (d. 179 A.H., 795 C.E.). All these books, however, were far from being exhaustive. In the first place, the object of their compilation was simply the collection of such reports as touched on the daily life of the Muslims. Reports relating to a large number of topics, such as faith, knowledge, the life of the Holy Prophet, wars, and comments on the Quran, were outside their scope. And secondly, every author collected only such reports as were taught at the centre where he worked. These works were, however, a great advance on oral transmission in the work of collecting Hadith.
Collection of Hadith: Fifth stage
This great work was brought to completion in the third century of Hijrah. It was then that two kinds of collections were made, Musnad (the earlier type) and Jāmi‘ or Muṣannaf. Musnad is derived from sanad meaning authority, and the isnād of a Hadith report meant the tracing of it back through various transmitters to the Companion of the Holy Prophet on whose authority it rested. The Musnad collections were arranged, not according to the subject-matter of the report, but under the name of the Companion on whose final authority the report rested. The most important of the works of this class is the Musnad of Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241 A.H., 855 C.E.), which contains about thirty thousand reports.
It is to the Jāmi‘ or Musannaf that the honour is due of bringing the knowledge of Hadith to perfection. The word Jāmi‘ means ‘one that gathers together’ and Musannaf is something ‘compiled together’. The Jāmi‘ not only arranges reports according to their subject-matter but is also of a more critical tone.
Six books are recognized generally under the heading, being the collections made by:
1. Muhammad ibn Ismail, commonly known as Imam Bukhari (d. 256 A.H., 870 C.E.)
2. Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (d. 261 A.H., 875 C.E.)
3. Tirmidhi (d. 279 A.H., 892 C.E.)
4. Abu Dawud (d. 275 A.H., 889 C.E.)
5. Ibn Majah (d. 273 A.H., 887 C.E.)
6. Nasa’i (d. 303 A.H., 915 C.E.).31
These books classified reports under various subjects and thus made Hadith easy for reference, not only for lawyers and judges but also for students and research scholars, thus giving a further impetus to the study of Hadith.32
Sahih Bukhari
Among the six collections mentioned above, known collectively as Sihah Sittah or the ‘six reliable collections’, Bukhari holds the first place in several respects while Muslim comes second. Firstly, Bukhari has the unquestioned distinction of being first, all the others modelling their writings on his. Secondly, he is the most critical of all. He did not accept any report unless all its transmitters were reliable and until there was proof that the later transmitter had actually met the first; the mere fact that the two were contemporaries, which is the test adopted by Muslim, did not satisfy him. Thirdly, in his acumen he surpasses all. Fourthly, he heads the more important of his chapters with text from the Quran, and thus shows that Hadith is only an explanation of the Quran, and as such a secondary source of the teachings of Islam.
Method of counting reports
There is a wrong impression that the compilers of Hadith were faced with a vast mass of spurious reports and they did not credit more than one or two per cent of the prevailing mass as being genuine, the majority of the reports being fabrications. It is true that Bukhari took cognizance of 600,000 reports and knew some 200,000 of these by heart. It is also a fact that his book contains no more than 9,000 reports. But it is not true that he found the other 591,000 reports to be false or fabricated. It must be clearly understood that those who were engaged in the dissemination and study of Hadith looked upon every report as different when even a single transmitter was changed. For instance, a report from Abu Hurairah may have been reported by, say, ten of his disciples with or without any variation. Each of these reports would, according to the collectors, form a separate hadith. Again, suppose each of the transmitters of Abu Hurairah’s report had two reporters, the same would then be counted as twenty different reports. The number would thus go on increasing as the number of reporters increased. By the time of Bukhari, in a chain of ordinarily four or five transmitters, consider the number of reports that would arise from the same basic report and it is easy to understand that 600,000 did not mean so many reports relating to various subjects, but so many reports coming through different transmitters, many of them referring to the same incident or conveying the same subject-matter with or without variation of words.
Reports in biographies and commentaries
Western critics often confuse Hadith with the reports found in biographies of the Prophet and commentaries on the Quran. However, Muslim scholars have never given these secondary sources the same status as Hadith from the authentic collections. Unlike Hadith, the biographical narratives were not compiled with strict criteria for authenticity.
Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal stated bluntly that such biographies “are not based on any principle.” Hafiz Zain-ud-Din Iraqi confirmed that “they contain what is true and what is false.” This reflects the long-standing Muslim view that while biographies can be informative, they lack the rigor and reliability of Hadith compilations like those of Bukhari or Muslim.
The situation is worse in many early Quranic commentaries. Some commentators blended Hadith with stories borrowed from Jewish and Christian traditions—known as Isra’iliyyat—treating these tales as if they were genuine reports. Ibn Khaldun highlighted this problem, noting that the Arabs, lacking a written tradition, sought answers from converted Jews and Christians whose understanding of metaphysics and history was no better than popular folklore. These borrowed tales, unrelated to Islamic law or doctrine, filled early commentaries with myths and legends.
He explained:
Their books and their reports contain what is bad and what is good and what may be accepted and what should be rejected, and the reason of this is that the Arabs were an ignorant race without literature and without knowledge, and desert life and ignorance were their chief characteristics, and whenever they desired, as mortals do desire, to obtain knowledge of the cause of existence and the origin of creation and the mysteries of the universe, they turned for information to the followers of the Book, the Jews and such of the Christians as practised their faith. But these people of the Book were like themselves, and their knowledge of these things went no further than the knowledge of the ignorant masses. … So when these people embraced Islam, they retained their stories which had no connection with the commandments of the Islamic law, such as the stories of the origin of creation, and things relating to the future and the wars, etc. … Commentaries on the Quran were soon filled with these stories of theirs.
Shah Wali-ullah writes in a similar strain:
It is necessary to know that most of the Israelite stories that have found their way into the commentaries and histories are copied from the stories of the Jews and the Christians, and no commandment or belief can be based upon them.
In fact, in some of the commentaries, the reports cited do not make sense. Even the commentary of Ibn Jarir, with all its value as a literary production, cannot be relied upon. Ibn Kathir’s commen-tary is, however, an exception, as it contains chiefly reports taken from reliable collections.
Canons of criticism of Hadith as accepted by Muslims
There is no doubt that the collectors of Hadith attached the utmost importance to the trustworthiness of the narrators. As Alfred Guil-laume says:
Inquiries were made as to the character of the guarantors, whether they were morally and religiously satisfactory, whether they were tainted with heretical doctrines, whether they had a reputation for truthfulness, and had the ability to transmit what they had themselves heard. Finally, it was necessary that they should be competent witnesses whose testimony would be accepted in a court of civil law.
More than this, they tried their best to find out whether each report was actually traceable to the Holy Prophet through the various necessary stages. Even the Companions did not accept any report which was brought to their notice until they were fully satisfied that it came from the Holy Prophet. But the collectors went beyond the narrators, and they had rules of criticism which were applied to the subject-matter. In judging whether a certain report was spurious or genuine, the collectors not only made a thorough investigation of the trustworthiness of the transmitters but also app-lied other rules of criticism which are in no way inferior to modern methods. For example, a report was not accepted if it was opposed to recognized historical facts; or it was of such a nature that to know it and act upon it was incumbent upon all but it was reported only by one individual; or it was against reason or against the plain teachings of Islam; or it mentioned an incident which, had it happened, would have been reported by large numbers, while it was not reported by anyone except the particular reporter; or if it contained an accusation against the Companions by a Shiah reporter, or against a member of the Holy Prophet’s family by a reporter who was a Khariji, and such a report was not corroborated by in-dependent testimony.
The Quran as the greatest test for judging Hadith
In addition to these rules of criticism, there is another very important test whereby the trustworthiness of Hadith may be judged, and it is a test the application whereof was commanded by the Holy Prophet himself:
There will be narrators after me reporting sayings from me, so judge the sayings by the Quran; if it agrees with the Quran, accept it; otherwise, do not accept it.
The genuineness of this saying is beyond all question, as it stands on the soundest basis. It is a fact that Hadith was in vogue in the time of the Holy Prophet, as already shown, and the authority of the Quran was treated as higher than that of Hadith, as appears from numerous occasions. There is a saying of the Holy Prophet:
My sayings do not abrogate the word of Allah, but the word of Allah can abrogate my sayings.
The hadith relating to Mu‘adh which has been quoted earlier (see page 31) places the Quran first, and the Hadith after that. Aishah used to quote a verse of the Quran on hearing words reported from the Holy Prophet when she thought that the purport of what the Prophet reportedly said did not agree with the Quran. The great Imam Bukhari quotes a verse of the Quran whenever he finds one suiting his text, before citing a saying, thus showing that the Quran holds precedence over Hadith; and by common consent of the Muslim community, Bukhari’s collection, considered to be the most trustworthy of all collections of Hadith, is called the most reliable of books after the Book of Allah. This verdict is enough proof that even if something in Bukhari disagrees with the Quran, it is the former that must be rejected and not the Book of God.
Hadith is only an explanation of the Quran, and for this reason also the latter must have precedence. Moreover, both Muslim and non-Muslim historians are agreed that the Quran has been handed down intact, every word and every letter of it, while Hadith cannot claim that purity. Since the Quran deals with the principles of the Islamic law while Hadith deals with its details, it is just and rea-sonable that only such details should be accepted as are in consonance with the principles. Again, as the Holy Prophet is plainly represented in the Quran as following “only what is revealed” to him and as not disobeying a word of what was revealed to him,35 it follows clearly that if there is anything in Hadith which is not in consonance with the Quran, it could not have proceeded from the Holy Prophet, and must, therefore, be rejected.
How far did the Collectors apply these tests?
The question naturally arises: Did all Hadith collectors apply the same rigorous standards? The answer is no—not all were equally strict or consistent.
Imam Bukhari, the earliest and most respected compiler, set the highest standard. He was extremely cautious in accepting narrators and, notably, applied another critical test: comparing Hadith with the Quran. Many of his chapters begin with Quranic verses, and sometimes he cited only a verse to support his point—indicating that he judged Hadith not just by chain of transmission but also by content. While he didn’t explicitly document his entire critical process, it’s clear that his scrutiny went beyond verifying narrators.
Other collectors followed the same core methods, but their critical sharpness and consistency varied. Some intentionally relaxed the rules in areas not tied to law—such as history, prophecy, or eschatology. In contrast, they were more stringent with Hadith related to jurisprudence, where the stakes were higher in defining what is permissible or forbidden.
Generally, most collectors emphasized verifying the chain of narrators more than content analysis. This was logical and necessary. As time passed, testing the authenticity of narrators became harder. A reliable chain was the foundation for trust. Their focus was to preserve reports traceable to the Prophet, and they recognized that deeper critical evaluation would continue in future generations.
Importantly, these scholars never claimed infallibility—even in Bukhari’s case. They saw themselves as the beginning of a larger scholarly process. Their integrity was beyond question. Many faced persecution from political powers of the time. Yet they refused state positions, rejected influence, and chose hardship over compromising their pursuit of truth. Their independence and sincerity laid the foundation for Hadith scholarship that continues to evolve.
SECTION 4 - Source of Islam (#3)
IJTIHAD (EXERCISE OF JUDGEMENT)
Ijtihad is the third source from which the laws of Islam are drawn. It literally means ‘exerting oneself to the utmost’ and applies technically to the exerting of mind to the utmost by a lawyer to form an opinion in a case of law in regard to a difficult point.36
Value of reason recognized
Reasoning or the exercise of judgment, in theological as well as in legal matters, plays a very important part in the religion of Islam, and the value of reason is expressly recognized in the Holy Quran. It appeals to reason again and again, and is full of exhortations such as the following: “Do you not reflect?” “Do you not under-stand?” “Have you no sense?” “There are signs in this for a people who reflect;” “There are signs in this for a people who understand;” and so on. Those who do not use their reasoning faculty are compared to animals, and spoken of as being deaf, dumb and blind:
And the parable of those who disbelieve is as the parable of one [i.e., the Prophet] who calls out to that which hears no more than a call and a cry. Deaf, dumb, blind, so they have no sense.
They have hearts with which they do not understand, and they have eyes with which they do not see, and they have ears with which they do not hear. They are as cattle; rather, they are more astray.
The vilest of beasts in Allah’s sight are the deaf, the dumb, who do not understand.
Or do you think that most of them hear or understand? They are only as the cattle; rather, they are farther astray from the path.
While those who do not exercise their reason or judgment are condemned, those who do it are praised:
In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the alternation of the night and the day, there are surely signs for those who have understanding, those who remember Allah standing and sitting and [lying] on their sides, and reflect on the creation of the heavens and the earth.
The Quran does recognize revelation as a source of knowledge higher than reason, but at the same time admits that the truth of the principles established by revelation may be judged by reason, and hence it is that it repeatedly appeals to reason and denounces those who do not use their reasoning faculty. It also recognizes the necessity of the exercise of judgment in order to arrive at a decision:
But if any news of security or fear comes to them, they spread it about. And if they had referred it to the Messenger and to those in authority among them, those of them who can search out the knowledge of it would have known it.
The verse recognizes the principle of the exercise of judgment, and though the occasion on which it is mentioned is a particular one, the principle recognized is general.
The Prophet allowed exercise of judgment in religious matters
The exercise of judgment (Ijtihad) is expressly recognized in Hadith as the means by which a decision may be arrived at when there is no direction in the Quran or Hadith. The following report is regarded as the basis of Ijtihad in Islam:
When the Messenger of Allah decided to send Mu‘adh to Yaman [as Governor], he asked him how he would decide cases. Mu‘adh replied: ‘By the Book of Allah’. He asked: ‘But if you do not find [any direction] in it’. He replied: ‘Then by the practice (Sunnah) of the Messenger of Allah’. ‘But if you do not find [any direction] in the Sunnah’, he asked. ‘Then I will exercise my judgment (ajtahidu) and spare no effort’, Mu‘adh replied. … The Messenger of Allah said: ‘Praise be to Allah Who has granted the messenger of His Messenger what pleases the Messenger of Allah’.”
This report shows not only that the Holy Prophet approved of the exercise of judgment, but also that his Companions were well aware of the principle, and that reasoning or exercise of judgment by others was freely resorted to when necessary, even in the Holy Prophet’s lifetime.
Exercise of Judgment by the Companions
After the Holy Prophet’s death, the principle of Ijtihad obtained a wider prevalence, and as new areas were added to the material and spiritual realm of Islam, the need of resorting to the exercise of judgment became greater. Nor did the Caliphs arrogate all authority to themselves. They had a council to which every important case was referred, and its decision by a majority of votes was accepted by the Caliph as well as by the Muslim public. Thus Sayuti writes in his History of the Caliphs:
When a case came before Abu Bakr [the first Caliph], he used to consult the Book of Allah; if he found anything in it by which he could decide, he did so; if he did not find it in the Book, and he knew of a practice or saying of the Messenger of Allah, he decided according to it; and if he was unable to find anything there, he used to question the Muslims if they knew of any decision of the Prophet in a matter of that kind, and a company of people thus gathered round him, every one of whom stated what he knew from the Prophet, and Abu Bakr would say, ‘Praise be to Allah Who has kept among us those who remember what the Prophet said’; but if he was unable to find anything in the practice of the Prophet, he gathered the heads of the people, and the best of them, and consulted them, and if they agreed upon one opinion [by a majority] he decided accordingly.
The same rule was followed by Umar, the second Caliph, who resorted to Ijtihad very freely, but took care always to gather the most learned Companions for consultation. When there was a difference of opinion, the decision of the majority was acted upon. Besides this council, there were great individual teachers, such as Aishah, Ibn Abbas, Ibn Umar and others, whose opinion was highly revered. Decisions were given and laws made and promulgated subject only to the one condition that they were neither contrary to the Holy Quran nor to the practice of the Holy Prophet.
The four great jurists (Imam Abu Hanifa, Imam Malik, Imam Shafi, Imam Hanbal)
In the second century of Hijrah, four great jurists emerged who codified Islamic law to meet the needs of their time. The first was Imam Abu Hanifah (d. 150 A.H./767 C.E.), whose school, the Hanafi madhhab, became the most widely followed. Since Hadith was not yet fully compiled, Abu Hanifah relied heavily on the Quran and applied analogical reasoning (qiyas), accepting Hadith only when convinced of its authenticity. His students, Abu Yusuf and Muhammad al-Shaybani, expanded and recorded his views, forming the basis of the Hanafi system. Abu Hanifah emphasized equity, allowing even logical conclusions to be set aside if unjust.
Imam Malik ibn Anas (d. 179 A.H./796 C.E.), founder of the Maliki school, worked in Madinah. His legal views were grounded in the Hadith and practices of the people of Madinah, which he treated as authoritative. Known for his caution, he would declare “I do not know” when unsure. His work Muwatta was the first of its kind—an early Hadith collection and legal manual.
Imam al-Shafi‘i (d. 204 A.H./820 C.E.) developed his school in Egypt. He was familiar with both Hanafi and Maliki thought but emphasized Hadith more broadly than Malik, using narrations gathered from multiple regions. This gave his system a wider foundation, distinguishing it from Malik’s local focus and Abu Hanifah’s reasoning-heavy approach.
Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 241 A.H./855 C.E.), founder of the Hanbali school, relied almost entirely on Hadith. His Musnad, compiled by his son, contains nearly 30,000 reports, but lacks the strict classification seen in Bukhari’s or Muslim’s collections. His limited use of reasoning led him to accept even weak reports if traced to the Prophet.
From Imam Abu Hanifah’s rational approach to Imam Hanbal's reliance on Hadith, there was a decline in the use of Ijtihad (independent reasoning). Later jurists failed to advance these methods, contributing to intellectual stagnation where once there was vibrant legal development.
Different methods of formulating new laws
The four major Sunni jurists—and the Shia scholars even more so—recognized Ijtihad (independent reasoning) as vital in Islamic law. Alongside the Quran and Sunnah, Ijtihad and Ijma‘ (consensus) are accepted as important legal tools, though only the Quran and Sunnah are viewed as absolute authorities. The others are known as "arguments obtained by exertion."
Ijtihad serves to address issues not explicitly covered in the Quran or Hadith. Over time, jurists developed various methods to fulfill new legal needs:
— Qiyas (analogical reasoning) is the most widely accepted. When a new case arises without direct scriptural guidance, a jurist finds a similar case in the Quran or Hadith and applies the same logic. This method extends existing law but admits the possibility of error, explaining the diversity of legal opinions among scholars.
— Istihsan (juristic preference) allows for deviation from analogy when a ruling based on analogy seems unjust or harmful to the public. In such cases, the jurist may choose a ruling better aligned with equity or public welfare. This principle, favored by the Hanafi school, was not fully developed due to opposition, but it reflects the Quran’s broader moral vision. It often avoids the rigidity of abstract analogies.
— Istislah, used by the Maliki school, is similar. It means deriving rulings directly from public interest, especially when no clear scriptural guidance exists.
— Istidlal (inference) refers to reasoning from other accepted sources, particularly customs, usages, and pre-Islamic religious laws. Customs not contradicting the Quran are admissible, based on the juristic principle that all things are presumed permissible unless forbidden. The Hanafi school especially values this approach. Pre-Islamic laws mentioned in the Quran and not abrogated are also considered valid.
Together, these methods show how Islamic law adapted to new challenges without straying from its foundational principles.
Ijma’ or Consensus of Opinion
In the terminology of the Muslim jurists, Ijma’ means a consensus of opinion or an agreement of the Muslim jurists of a particular age on a question of law. The agreement may be inferred from their word, their practice, or silence when recognized jurists do not controvert an opinion expressed by one or more of them. It is generally held that Ijmā’ means the consensus of opinion of jurists only, but some are of the opinion that it means the agreement of all Muslims. Most authorities require the unanimity of opinion of all the jurists of a particular age, but others have held the opposite view. However, it is generally agreed that if there is an overwhelming preponderance of jurists holding a certain view, that view is valid and binding, though not absolute. One Ijma’ may be repealed by another in the same age or in a subsequent age, with this reservation that the Ijma’ of the Companions of the Holy Prophet cannot be reversed by any later generation.
Ijma’ is not an independent source of the laws of Islam. It is essentially Ijtihad or exercise of judgment, on which all or the majority of the jurists of a certain generation are agreed. There is no denying the fact that, if many jurists are agreed on a certain question, their opinion would carry greater weight than that of a single one, but even the opinion of many, or of all, is not infallible. Ijma’, after all, is only Ijtihad on a wider basis, and like the latter it is always open to correction.
To differ with majority is no sin
It may be added here that the sense in which the word Ijma’ is commonly used nowadays is quite erroneous, for it is taken to mean the opinion of the majority, and it is generally thought that it is a sin on the part of a Muslim to differ with the views of the majority. But honest difference of opinion, instead of being a sin, is called a mercy by the Holy Prophet, who is reported to have said: “The differences of my people are a mercy”.37 Difference of opinion is called a mercy because it is only through encouraging it that the reasoning faculty is developed, and the truth ultimately discovered. There were many differences of opinion among the Companions, and there were also matters on which a single man used to express boldly his dissent from all the rest. Ijtihad is encouraged by a saying of the Holy Prophet, which promises reward even to one who makes an error in it:
When the judge gives a judgment and he exercises his reasoning faculty and is right, he has a double reward, and when he gives a judgment and exercises his reasoning faculty and makes a mistake, there is a reward for him.
The door of Ijtihad is still open
By the sixth century Hijrah, many later jurists declared that the door of Ijtihad—independent reasoning—had closed. According to this view, after the direct students of the four major Imams, no scholar could perform fresh Ijtihad. Legal scholars (muqallidin) were now expected only to cite earlier rulings or choose among established opinions, without questioning their validity. Ironically, Ijtihad, once seen as a flexible method subject to error, was now treated almost on par with the Quran and Hadith—an authority beyond challenge.
But this idea of closure is mistaken. The Quran explicitly encourages the use of reason and allows analogical deduction. The Hadith also affirms the practice. Even during the Prophet’s life, his Companions exercised judgment when they could not consult him directly. After his death, new rulings were issued by Caliphs and learned Companions as fresh situations arose. Successive generations built upon earlier ones, often questioning and refining previous views.
The appearance of the four great Imams—Abu Hanifah, Malik, Shafi‘i, and Ahmad ibn Hanbal—in the second century proves that independent thought was not only permitted but needed. Each developed his own school, improving on past views. This evolution shows that Islam encourages intellectual effort in meeting new realities.
Ijtihad was vital in addressing the needs of a growing, diverse Muslim world. Neither the Prophet, his Companions, nor the great jurists ever declared an end to Ijtihad. What changed was perception. As Hadith scholarship grew in the third century, and the four Imams gained towering influence, later scholars hesitated to think independently. Over time, reverence turned into restriction. This false notion stifled Islamic thought, replacing growth with stagnation. Reopening the door of Ijtihad is not a rebellion against tradition—it is a return to it.
Independence of thought recognized
The Holy Quran expressly recognizes independence of opinion for one and all, and requires that absolute obedience be given only to God and His Messenger:
O you who believe, obey Allah and obey the Messenger and those in authority from among you; then if you quar-rel about anything, refer it to Allah and the Messenger…
This verse speaks of obedience to those in authority (ulu-l-amr), along with the obedience to the Messenger, and then mentions disputes which, it says, must be settled by referring them to God and His Messenger. The omission of ulu-l-amr from the latter portion of the verse shows clearly that the quarrel here spoken of relates to differences with ulu-l-amr, and in the case of such a difference the only authority is that of God and the Messenger, or the Quran and the Hadith. Every authority in Islam, whether temporal or spiritual, is included in ulu-l-amr, and independence of thought for every Muslim is thus recognized by allowing him to differ with all except the Quran and the Hadith. The Companions, the Collectors of Hadith, the four Imams and the other jurists being thus included in ulu-l-amr, must be obeyed ordinarily, but to differ with any one or all of them, when one has the authority of the Quran and the Hadith is expressly permitted. And since the ultimate test of the correctness of Hadith is the Quran itself, the conclusion is evident that Islam allows independence of thought subject only to one condition, that the principles laid down in the Quran are not contravened.
It will thus be seen that any Muslim community has the right to make any law for itself, the only condition being that such law shall not contravene any principle laid down by the Holy Quran. The impression prevailing in the Muslim world at present that no one has the right, even in the light of the new circumstances which a thousand years of the world’s progress have brought about, to differ with the four Imams, is entirely a mistaken one. The right to differ with the highest of men below the Holy Prophet is a Muslim’s birthright, and to take away that right is to stifle the very existence of Islam. Under the present circumstances, when condi-tions have quite changed and the world has been moving on for a thousand years, while Muslims have more or less stagnated, it is the duty of Muslim states and Muslim peoples to apply their own judgment to the changed conditions, and find out the ways and means for their temporal salvation.
SECTION 5 - The Principles of Islam (#1)
FAITH (IMAN)
In Islam, Iman (faith) is more than just belief in the heart – it’s meant to be shown through actions. The Quran often pairs “those who believe and do good deeds,” showing that true faith motivates a person to live righteously (see Quran 2:25, 103:3). The Prophet Muhammad also taught that faith has many branches, including both belief and good character traits (such as honesty and modesty). Thus, faith is not static or only lip-service; it grows when one practices it. The Prophet said, “None of you truly believes until he loves for his brother what he loves for himself,” tying faith to treating others well. Islam rejects the idea that a person can claim to have iman yet behave unjustly; faith without practice is considered hollow. Conversely, good deeds without sincere faith may lack a soul or higher purpose. A balance of belief and action is essential.
The Meaning of Iman
In Arabic, iman means to affirm truthfully and to trust. The Quran uses iman to signify believing in God, His guidance, and His messengers wholeheartedly. The word Islam (submission) is closely related – early usage sometimes distinguished a “Muslim” (outward submitter) from a “mu’min” (true believer in the heart). However, generally, Muslim and mu’min are used interchangeably once sincerity is assumed. Islam teaches that real faith settles in the heart and is known to God; humans should avoid judging each other’s faith. The Prophet forbade calling a professing Muslim a non-believer (kafir) just because of sins or personal enmity, saying that as long as someone declares “There is no god but Allah,” they should be treated as part of the community of believers. This fosters a culture of assuming the best about others’ faith.
Basic Tenets of Faith
The foundation of a Muslim’s faith is often summarized in the Six Articles of Faith. These are drawn from the Quran and Hadith (especially the famous Hadith of Angel Gabriel):
1. Belief in One God (Allah): An unshakeable conviction that there is only one God, without partner or equal – the compassionate Creator and Sustainer of the universe.
2. Belief in the Angels: Acceptance of God’s angels, who are noble beings created from light, carrying out His commands (like Gabriel delivering revelation).
3. Belief in the Revealed Books: God sent scriptures to guide humanity – including the Torah, Psalms, Gospel, and finally the Quran which confirms and guards previous truth (Quran 5:48). A Muslim respects all original revelations in their true form.
4. Belief in the Prophets: God raised prophets among every people (Quran 10:47). Muslims believe in prophets like Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad – peace be upon them – with Muhammad as the last Prophet sealing prophethood.
5. Belief in the Day of Judgment (Afterlife): This life is a test; after death, souls will be resurrected. Allah will judge each person justly and mercifully, rewarding virtue with Paradise and correcting wrongdoing (or punishing unrepentant evil) in Hell – but ultimately His mercy prevails.
6. Belief in Qadar (Divine Decree): That God’s power and knowledge encompass everything. (However, unlike other five, this concept needs proper understanding – see Chapter 10 – as Islam does not teach predestination in the fatalistic sense. Humans have free will, but nothing happens outside God’s knowledge and permission).
These core beliefs are mentioned in the Quran (for example, Quran 2:285 lists belief in God, angels, books, and messengers, and in meeting Allah in the hereafter). A hadith states that faith means “to believe in Allah, His angels, His books, His messengers, the Last Day, and to believe in fate (good and bad) from Allah”
Importance and Effects of Faith:
Faith in Islam isn’t just intellectual acceptance; it’s a living force. When a Muslim truly believes in One God, it frees them from fear of worldly powers – they rely on Allah. Belief in the afterlife keeps one mindful of consequences, encouraging honesty and kindness even when no one is watching (“whoever does an atom’s weight of good will see it [in the Hereafter]” – Quran 99:7). Faith provides comfort in hardships, knowing one’s life is in God’s hands and trials have purpose. Moreover, faith unites people: no matter their race or nationality, Muslims see each other as brothers and sisters in creed, equal before God. The Prophet likened the community of believers to a body – when one part hurts, the whole body responds with empathy. Thus, true faith softens the heart, inspires self-improvement, and builds a caring society.
In summary, Islam’s concept of faith is holistic: it begins in the heart, is affirmed by the tongue (the shahadah, or declaration: “There is no god but Allah, Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah”), and is proven by one’s deeds. A weak faith shows in bad conduct, whereas a strong faith blossoms in virtue. As the Quran says, “Surely the believers are those who, when Allah is mentioned, feel a tremor in their hearts… who keep up prayer and spend (in charity) out of what We have given them. These are the true believers” (8:2-4). Faith is thus the engine that drives a Muslim’s life towards what is good and pleasing to God.
SECTION 6 - The Principles of Islam (#2)
THE DIVINE BEING – ALLAH
Understanding The Existence of God
Evidence of God’s Existence
Islam teaches that belief in God (Allah in Arabic) is natural and rational. The Quran invites people to see signs of God in the universe and within themselves: “In the creation of the heavens and the earth and the alternation of night and day, there are signs for people who reflect” (3:190). Everything in nature follows orderly laws – the growth of a seed into a tree, the precise orbits of planets – suggesting a Wise Planner. The Quran argues that such harmony and purpose in creation cannot be by chance: “(God) has made perfect everything He created” (32:7). Human inner experience also points to God. We have an inborn moral compass and spiritual yearning; as the Quran says, “(It is) the nature made by Allah in which He has created mankind” (30:30). Throughout history, people everywhere sensed a higher power. Islam holds that God sent prophets to every nation to guide this innate belief (Quran 16:36). Finally, the revelation of the Quran itself is considered a proof – its profound teachings and fulfilled prophecies indicate a source beyond human. Thus, external nature, internal conscience, and direct revelation all lead to affirming God’s existence.
Allah is the proper or personal name of the Divine Being, as distinguished from all other names which denote His attributes. It is also known as the greatest name of God (ism a‘zam). Being a proper name it does not carry any significance, but being the proper name of the Divine Being it comprises all the attributes which are contained separately in the attributive names. Hence the name Allah is said to gather together in itself all the perfect attributes of God.
The Unity of God (Tawhid)
The central Islamic belief is “God is One and ONLY one.” The Quran’s monotheism is pure and uncompromising: “He is Allah, the One and Only; Allah, the Eternal, Absolute; He does not beget, nor is He begotten; and there is none like Him” (112:1-4). This means God alone is the creator and sustainer; no other being shares His lordship or deserves worship. Shirk, the opposite of tawhid, is associating partners with God – considered the gravest sin in Islam (4:48). Shirk can take many forms: worshipping idols or nature, believing in multiple gods, or even putting worldly desires above God in one’s life. Islam came to a world full of idolatry and polytheism and declared all forms of shirk false. The pre-Islamic Arabs worshipped stone idols, the Persians had dualistic gods of good and evil, some Christians elevated Jesus to divine sonship – the Quran rejected all these. It taught that prophets like Jesus and others were human servants of God, not part of God Himself (5:72, 5:116). The concept of the Trinity is denied: “Say not ‘Three’ – God is only one God” (4:171). Any belief that divides God’s oneness – whether through idols, trinities, or mythological beings – is seen as a human distortion of the truth that God is singular and unique.
Meaning of the word Rabb
The full meaning of Rabb is explained here: He creates things and brings them to perfection; He makes things according to a measure and shows them the ways whereby they may attain to perfection. The idea of evolution is fully developed in the first two actions, the creation and the completion, so that everything created by God must attain to its destined completion. The last two actions show how the completion or evolution is brought about. Everything is made according to a measure, that is to say, certain laws of development are inherent in it; and it is also shown a way, that is to say, it knows the line along which it must proceed, so that it may reach its goal of completion. It thus appears that the creative force is not a blind force but one possessing wisdom and acting with a purpose. Even to the ordinary eye, wisdom and purpose are observable in the whole of the Divine creation, from the tiniest particle of dust or blade of grass to the mighty spheres moving in the universe on their appointed courses, because everyone of them is travelling along a certain line to its appointed goal of completion.
Allah’s Attributes:
Believing in one God doesn’t mean a vague force – Allah is described by many beautiful attributes that help us know Him. The Quran mentions at least 99 Names of God, such as The Merciful (Ar-Rahman), The Compassionate (Ar-Rahim), The Creator (Al-Khaliq), The All-Knowing (Al-ʿAlim), The Just (Al-ʿAdl), The Forgiving (Al-Ghafur). These attributes show that while God is beyond our full comprehension (“Nothing is like a likeness of Him” – 42:11), we can understand aspects of His nature. For instance, Ar-Rahman signifies God’s broad mercy that encompasses all creatures (even those who don’t believe in Him enjoy life’s blessings), and Ar-Rahim signifies special mercy reserved for the righteous and repentant. One important principle: God’s attributes are perfect and balanced. Unlike ancient gods who had human flaws, Allah’s power is tempered by mercy, His justice by wisdom. When Islam says God is Almighty (Al-Qadeer), it also says He is Most Wise (Al-Hakeem), so He uses power justly. Knowing God’s names and attributes helps Muslims form a personal relationship with Him – invoking Him by these names in prayers and trying to emulate qualities like compassion, justice, and patience in our own lives.
No Equals or Intermediaries
Tawhid also means we turn directly to God for all our needs; no intermediaries are needed. There is no concept of an incarnation of God or a literal “offspring” of God in Islam. The Quran addresses this plainly: “How can He have a son when He has no consort and He created all things?” (6:101). Worship is due to God alone – prayers to other beings (whether saints, angels, or anything) are seen as misguidance. Even the Prophet Muhammad is not worshipped; he is revered as God’s messenger, but in daily prayers Muslims say, “I bear witness Muhammad is His servant and messenger,” stressing the Prophet’s servant status. This strict monotheism liberates humans from serving anyone or anything else. It establishes an immediate bond between the individual and the Creator: every person can call upon Allah at any time without rites or church hierarchy. It also lays the foundation for human equality – since there is one Lord of all, all people are fundamentally equal as His servants. No race or class is “closer” to God inherently; what matters is each person’s righteousness (49:13).
Impact of Belief in One God
The doctrine of One God (tawhid) is not just theological – it has profound personal and social impact. Personally, it fills the heart with peace and trust in Allah. A believer knows the world isn’t controlled by random forces or multiple gods at odds, but by the will of a single loving God. This belief helps one stay strong in trials (knowing Allah is with them) and humble in success (knowing all comes from Allah’s favor). Socially, tawhid unites people: if we all worship the same God, superficial differences fade. The Prophet Muhammad’s mission broke barriers of tribe and nationality by bonding people through faith. “The believers are but a single brotherhood,” says the Quran (49:10). Moreover, seeing God as the ultimate judge who sees everything encourages moral behavior openly and in secret.
In essence, the Islamic view of the Divine is strictly monotheistic, majestic in its purity, yet intimate in its reach. Allah is the sole Creator and Sustainer, beyond any need, unlimited by form or place (“Vision cannot grasp Him, but He grasps all vision” – 6:103), yet He is “nearer to man than his jugular vein” (50:16) – fully aware of our thoughts and feelings. Loving and worshipping Allah is the heart of Islam. As the Quran beautifully states, “Those who believe are stronger in love for Allah” (2:165). This love and awe for the One Divine Being inspires Muslims to live a life of devotion, sincerity, and service to His creation.
SECTION 7
THE ANGELS
Who Are the Angels?
Angels (malā’ika in Arabic) are a core part of Islamic belief in the unseen. They are spiritual beings created by Allah from light (according to Hadith) who carry out specific duties in the universe. Unlike humans, angels have no physical needs, do not eat or drink, and have no gender. They are naturally obedient to God, never rebelling or sinning (Quran 66:6). The Quran describes them as honorable servants who “do not disobey Allah in what He commands them, but do as they are commanded” (66:6). Some angels are mentioned by name: for example, Gabriel (Jibril) who brought revelation to the prophets, and Mikā’il (Michael) who is linked with providing sustenance (like rain). Angels can take on human-like forms when appearing to people – as Gabriel did when he visited Mary (Maryam) and when he questioned the Prophet Muhammad in front of companions (Hadith of Gabriel). However, they are normally invisible to us, part of the ghayb (unseen world) that only God fully knows.
Roles of Angels
Islamic teachings detail many tasks for angels. The Angel Gabriel is the most prominent, delivering God’s messages to prophets (“Say: whoever is an enemy to Gabriel – it is he who brought the Quran down upon your heart by permission of Allah” – 2:97). Angels also record each person’s deeds: the Quran says “Surely there are guardians over you – noble recorders – who know whatever you do” (82:10-12). Thus Muslims believe two angels (called Kiraman Katibin) accompany every person, writing their good and bad actions (Quran 50:17-18). There are guardian angels protecting people by Allah’s command (13:11). Angels of death (led by Azrael, though not named in Quran) take the souls at death (32:11). Others question the souls in the grave. Israfil is an angel who will blow the trumpet to commence the Day of Judgment. A mighty host of angels carry the Throne of Allah (symbolically mentioned in 69:17). Angels praise and glorify God constantly (Quran 21:20) and they pray for believers – for example, “The angels pray for you and ask forgiveness for those on earth” (42:5). There are even angels in gatherings of knowledge and prayer, spreading divine mercy.
Importantly, angels are also assigned to inspire people towards good. The Prophet said each person has an angel and a jinn companion (see below), the angel encouraging good thoughts. Thus when you feel an inner voice urging kindness or truth, Muslims might see that as angelic influence – whereas temptation to evil is from satanic forces.
Belief in Jinn
Alongside angels, the Quran speaks of jinn – another kind of unseen creation. Jinn are spirits created from “smokeless fire” (55:15), in contrast to humans from clay and angels from light. They have free will like humans do – meaning they can choose to believe or disbelieve, do right or wrong. The jinn world is somewhat parallel to humanity: there are Muslim jinn, non-Muslim jinn, etc., as mentioned in Quran 72: some jinn said “Among us are the righteous and among us are [others] otherwise; we are of various paths” (72:11). One famous jinn is Iblis, who is also called Satan (Shaytan). He was present among angels but was not an angel – he was a jinn who disobeyed God by refusing to bow to Adam (Quran 18:50). Because of his arrogance, Iblis was expelled from God’s grace, and he swore to mislead humans (7:16-17). So in Islam, the devil is not a fallen angel (angels cannot disobey), but a jinn.
Jinn can interact with the physical world in ways we don’t fully see. They may influence humans by whispering temptations or false ideas (“[Satan] whispers into the hearts of mankind” – 114:4-5). However, their power is limited – they cannot force someone to do wrong; they can only entice. The Quran says, on Judgment Day Satan will say to those he misled, “I had no authority over you except that I called you and you responded to me” (14:22). Some people superstitiously fear jinn as powerful ghosts or demons controlling life, but Islam strongly discourages such fears. The Quran tells that jinn have no sway over true believers who rely on Allah (16:99). Reciting Quran and prayers is believed to protect against any harmful jinn influence.
Rejecting Superstitions
Islam came to eradicate many superstitious beliefs about spirits, devils, and the unseen. Pre-Islamic Arabs, for example, were very afraid of jinn and thought they could possess or bring disease. The Quran downplays jinn’s role, clarifying they are merely another creation, mostly hidden. It even uses jinn sometimes to mean foreign or unseen peoples (some scholars say references to jinn listening to the Quran (46:29) were actually humans from afar). The Prophet taught specific prayers for protection and mental strength, rather than elaborate exorcism rituals. Importantly, Islam forbids trying to communicate with spirits or doing “magic” – those are seen as deceptions often involving evil jinn. Real power over the unseen belongs only to God.
In conclusion, belief in angels and jinn reminds Muslims that our reality is more than the material world. There are benevolent forces (angels) aiding and recording us, and malevolent whisperers (satanic jinn) tempting us – but humans have the choice and responsibility for their path. This belief encourages one to seek God’s help against evil inclinations (we say “I seek refuge in Allah from the accursed Satan” when negative thoughts come) and to feel comfort that angels are with them when they do good or pray. Ultimately, angels highlight God’s care in running the universe, and the existence of jinn highlights the cosmic struggle between good and evil, which plays out not only in our visible world but in the unseen as well. A Muslim trusts that by holding firmly to faith and remembrance of Allah, they will have angelic support and be safe from any harm of the unseen.
SECTION 8
THE REVEALED BOOKS
God’s Guidance Through Scriptures (Torah, Injeel, Zabur)
Islam teaches that from the beginning of humanity, Allah has provided guidance through selected prophets and revealed books. A revealed book (kitab) is a scripture or holy text given to a prophet to teach their community. The Quran emphasizes that revelation is a universal fact – it did not start with Islam. “For every nation there was a messenger” (Quran 10:47), and many of those messengers were given some form of scripture or wisdom. Thus, Muslims believe in the original Torah (Tawrat) given to Moses, the Psalms (Zabur) given to David, the Gospel (Injil) given to Jesus, and scrolls given to earlier prophets like Abraham (Quran 87:18-19). Accepting the previous books is actually a part of Muslim faith – “and who believe in what has been sent down to you (O Muhammad) and in what was sent before you” (2:4).
However, the Quran also explains that over time, the earlier scriptures underwent changes. Human copying errors, deliberate alterations, or interpretations obscured the original message. For example, the Quran points out that some of the People of the Book “wrote the Book with their own hands and then said, ‘This is from Allah’” (2:79), indicating interpolation. Despite this, much truth still remains in those texts, and Islam respects their divine origin. This is why Prophet Muhammad engaged with Jews and Christians by referencing their scriptures – the Quran says: “Say: O People of the Book, you have no ground to stand upon unless you uphold the Torah and the Gospel and what has been revealed to you from your Lord” (5:68). Muslims believe in all original revelations in principle, but they rely on the Quran as the final, protected criterion for truth.
The Quran as Guardian of Scripture
The Holy Quran is seen as the culmination and confirmation of all earlier revelations. It often retells stories of previous prophets (like Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus) both to confirm their message and to correct deviations that crept in over time. For instance, the Quran upholds the virgin birth of Jesus (19:20-22) but rejects the notion of his divinity or him being God’s son, restoring pure monotheism (112:3, 5:116). It speaks highly of the Torah and Gospel as originally containing guidance and light (5:44, 5:46). But when communities differed and distorted teachings, the Quran came to judge between them on disputed matters. That’s why the Quran calls itself “Muhaimin” over previous scripture – a guardian or quality-control (5:48).
The coming of the Quran brought revelation to perfection. It is a comprehensive book suitable for all humankind, not limited to a tribe or period. After the Quran, no new scripture is needed – it is meant to guide until the end of time. The Prophet Muhammad was called “the Seal of the Prophets” (33:40), meaning the prophetic line is complete. The Quran states, “Today I have perfected your religion for you…and chosen for you Islam as your religion” (5:3).
Preservation of the Quran vs. Earlier Books
A significant difference Muslims note is that earlier scriptures were not preserved in their pure form, whereas the Quran has been (15:9 promises God will guard it). History shows the Torah and Bible were transmitted over centuries in many manuscripts with variations. By the Prophet’s time, some teachings had been lost or mixed with legends. The Quran came in a time of more reliable preservation techniques (writing and mass memorization) and has remained unchanged in Arabic since its revelation. Thus, when evaluating older scriptures, Muslims use the Quran as the reference. They accept whatever in those books aligns with the Quran’s teachings and politely discard what clearly contradicts it (believing such parts are human additions or errors).
Quran’s View on Other Religions’ Book
Despite pointing out alterations, the Quran instructs Muslims to speak respectfully with Jews and Christians (“People of the Book”). It uses common ground: “Say: We believe in what was revealed to us and revealed to you; our God and your God is one” (29:46). There are verses highlighting that the core messages – like belief in One God and living righteously – were the same. For example, it cites the Torah’s teaching “life for life, eye for eye” in justice (5:45) and the Gospel’s guidance of compassion (57:27). The Quran in 5:48 beautifully states that God gave each nation a law and a way, and if He willed He’d have made all one community, but He tests us through what He’s given us, so we should race in doing good. This fosters an attitude of tolerance: acknowledging previous scriptures had divine origin and followers of those books can achieve God’s pleasure if they truly follow the genuine teachings (Quran 2:62).
Continuation of Revelation
Many scholars holds that formal scripture revelation ended with the Quran. However, Islam recognizes a form of minor revelation or inspiration can still occur. This is not new law, but personal guidance from God to individuals (known as ilham or kashf). Awliya (saints) or devout people might receive insight or true dreams. One Hadith says “nothing remains of prophecy except truthful visions (Bukhari, Hadith 6990)”. But crucially, no new shari‘ah (religious law) can come – the Quran and Prophet’s Sunnah are final. Any personal inspiration must align with the Quran and Sunnah and is not binding on others.
In summary, Muslims honor the legacy of all revealed books as stepping stones in God’s plan, with the Quran as the final, uncorrupted guide for humanity. This chapter in a youth-friendly way underscores that Islam is not a rejection of previous faiths but their fulfillment. Muslims are asked in the Quran to declare: “We believe in Allah and what was revealed to us, and what was revealed to Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and the tribes, and (books) given to Moses and Jesus and the prophets from their Lord – we make no distinction between any of them, and to Him we submit” (3:84). This breadth of faith encourages Muslims to respect other religions’ scriptures in their original essence, promote interfaith understanding, and be grateful for the Quran which serves as a reliable compass in an ever-changing world.
SECTION 9
PROPHETS & MESSENGERS OF GOD
Who are the Prophets?
In Islam, a Prophet (nabi) is a human chosen by Allah to receive guidance and convey it to people. A Messenger (rasul) is a prophet who is given a specific law or book. These terms are often used interchangeably, but essentially every rasul is a nabi, though not every nabi is a rasul. The Quran says, “There is not a nation but a warner has passed among them” (35:24), meaning God has sent prophets to all peoples throughout history. This universality is important: Islam teaches that figures like Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and many others were all part of one brotherhood of prophets, preaching the same core message – to worship the One God and live righteously. The Quran mentions 25 prophets by name, but indicates there were many more: “We have sent messengers before you; of them are those We have told you, and of them are those We have not told you” (40:78). So, prophets have appeared in different lands – Muslims often consider that religious founders or great teachers elsewhere (such as in India, China, etc.) could have been prophets whose stories got changed over time.
Equality and Unity of Prophets
A key Islamic belief is not to discriminate among prophets (Quran 2:285). While Muslims see Muhammad ﷺ as the final prophet, they honor all previous prophets and do not speak ill of any of them. The Quran defends prophets against false stories or slander found in some historical texts. For example, it rejects that prophets like Noah or Aaron fell into grave sin or idolatry (as some accounts outside the Quran suggest). Islam teaches prophets are the best of humanity, their lives are models of virtue. Though they were human and could make minor mistakes, God protected them from major sins and from error in delivering His message (‘ismah, infallibility in conveying truth). The Quran addresses certain accusations: It absolves Aaron of blame when Israelites worshipped the calf (7:150-151), and calls David and Solomon righteous servants, even if they sought forgiveness for minor lapses (38:24-25). Prophets might face trials (like Jonah’s impatience or Adam’s slip), but they turn back to God in repentance and God forgives them, elevating their status.
All prophets brought essentially the same religion: Islam (in the generic sense of submission to God). Their specific laws or rituals might have differed, but their faith and morals were one. The Quran says “He has ordained for you the same religion which He enjoined on Noah, and that which We have revealed to you (O Muhammad), and that which We enjoined on Abraham, Moses, and Jesus – to establish the religion…” (42:13). Therefore, Muslims believe no prophet was false; those who truly claimed prophethood were indeed sent by God. It is a duty for a Muslim to respect figures like Moses and Jesus – rejecting them would be as bad as rejecting Muhammad. In practice, Muslim children grow up learning love and saluting peace upon all prophets.
Prophet Muhammad – The Final Messenger
Muhammad ﷺ is considered Khatam an-Nabiyyin, the Seal of the Prophets (33:40). This means he is the last in the line – no new prophet will come after him. His mission was unique in being for all humanity until the end of time, whereas earlier prophets were sent to specific nations or periods. For instance, Jesus was sent to the Children of Israel of his era (Matthew 15:24, confirmed indirectly by Quran 61:6), but Muhammad’s message is for everyone. The Quran calls him “a mercy to all the worlds” (21:107). Being the final messenger, Muhammad’s example and the Quranic revelation complete the guidance needed. This finality of prophethood has deep significance: it unites humanity under a single comprehensive message, and it encourages Muslims to take up the responsibility of conveying and living the message themselves now that no new prophet will arise. It also closed the door to false claimants – anyone after Muhammad claiming prophethood is considered to be in error, as prophecy has been perfected and concluded with him.
Miracles and Prophecies
Prophets often were supported by miracles (mu‘jizat) to prove their divine mission, though their teachings were the main evidence. The Quran recounts miracles like Noah’s flood, Abraham surviving fire, Moses parting the sea, and Jesus healing the blind by God’s permission. Muhammad’s biggest miracle is said to be the Quran itself – its linguistic perfection, profound wisdom, and accurate future prophecies and scientific pointers. One clear Quranic prophecy was that the Romans (Byzantines) who had been defeated would soon triumph (Quran 30:2-4), which happened within a decade. Another miracle often cited is the splitting of the moon, which some sources report the Prophet did as a sign to the Meccans, though the Quran only alludes: “The Hour has drawn near, and the moon has been cleft asunder” (54:1). Importantly, Islam teaches that prophets’ miracles were real but they were by Allah’s power, not the prophet’s own. Prophets themselves never claimed divinity due to miracles – rather they said, “This is by God’s help.” The greater “miracle” common to all prophets was their moral excellence and the transformation they brought in people’s hearts.
Why Prophets Are Raised
Prophets come as teachers and reformers when humanity drifts from the right path. They remind people of their purpose (worshiping God and doing good) and often call out social evils. For example, Prophet Shu‘ayb (Jethro) spoke against cheating in the marketplace (Quran 11:84-85), Prophet Lot warned against sexual immorality (7:80), Prophet Muhammad confronted the injustice and idolatry in Mecca. Through prophets, God shows that living by divine guidance is possible – they lead by example. Prophets also form a community (ummah) around the divine law, creating models of godly society. They are like physicians for the soul: diagnosing a nation’s spiritual diseases and prescribing cures from God’s revelation.
The Question of Sinlessness
In Islamic belief, all prophets were free from major sin and persisted in truthfulness (siddiqin). The Quran calls Abraham, Joseph, Moses, and others “siddiq” (truthful, upright). People sometimes misinterpret verses describing a prophet asking forgiveness as indicating sin – but Muslims understand these as either minor human errors or out of extreme humility. For instance, Adam ate from the forbidden tree, which was a mistake, but he immediately repented and God forgave him (2:36-37). Jonah (Yunus) left his people hastily when they didn’t listen; in the belly of the fish he prayed for forgiveness (21:87), and Allah redeemed him. These stories teach that even prophets turn to God for every little slip, setting an example that no one should be proud. But prophets did not lie, cheat, or commit immoral acts; God would not choose as His representative someone prone to such deeds. This contrasts with some biblical narratives – which Islam disputes – that depict prophets in scandalous situations. Islam exonerates them, upholding their honor.
Love and Following of Prophets
Muslims greet each prophet’s name with a phrase of respect like “peace be upon him” (alayhis salam). Especially with Muhammad ﷺ, love of the Prophet is considered part of faith. A hadith says, “None of you believes until I (the Prophet) am more beloved to him than his parents, children, and all people.” This love is not worship, but deep respect and gratitude for the guidance brought. Celebrating the Prophet’s character and sending salutations (durud) is common. However, Islam warns against excess or deification: even Muhammad is a servant of God, not sharing in God’s divinity at all.
In conclusion, prophets in Islam are the greatest benefactors of humanity, guiding us out of darkness by God’s leave. They form one community of noble brothers, culminating in Muhammad, the final prophet. Belief in them binds Muslims to a rich spiritual heritage, fosters respect for other faiths’ founders, and provides timeless role models. As the Quran succinctly states about the messengers: “They were those whom Allah guided, so follow their guidance” (6:90). By studying their lives and teachings, Muslims strive to emulate their truthfulness, courage, patience, and devotion to God.
SECTION 10
LIFE AFTER DEATH (AKHIRAH)
Belief in the Afterlife
One of the six core beliefs in Islam is in al-Akhirah, the life after death. Islam teaches that our earthly life is a temporary test and after we die, we will be resurrected for an eternal life. The Quran stresses the importance of this belief: “This worldly life is nothing but play and amusement, but the Home of the Hereafter is best for those who are mindful of God” (6:32). Faith in the afterlife gives meaning and accountability to our actions. It is said that a person who remembers they will meet God and be judged will lead a more responsible and moral life. The Prophet Muhammad emphasized that “the smart person is one who controls his desires and works for what comes after death.”
Belief in the Afterlife
Islamic teachings describe several stages beyond the grave:
1. Barzakh (Interim Phase): When a person dies, they enter barzakh, an intermediate world between life and resurrection. In the grave, the soul experiences a preview of its fate. If one was righteous, the grave is “a garden from the gardens of Paradise,” a state of peace. If wicked, it’s “a pit from the pits of Hell,” a state of distress (as per Hadith). However, this is not the final judgment – it’s a waiting period until the Day of Resurrection. The barzakh stage is beyond our normal perception; time there may feel different (some reports suggest the period in the grave passes quickly like a nap for the dead until they are raised).
2. Resurrection (Qiyamah): Islam teaches there will come a Last Day when the world as we know it ends. Allah will resurrect all human beings, from the first to the last. The Quran says “The trumpet will be blown and behold – they will rise from their graves and hasten to their Lord” (36:51). People will be recreated physically and spiritually. The Day of Judgment is described with vivid imagery: the sky cracking, graves opening, people in panic, etc., to indicate its magnitude. Everyone will stand before God for an audit of their life.
3. The Judgment: Allah, the Perfect Judge, will review each person’s deeds. Records of deeds (the book of deeds) will be laid open (Quran 18:49). Even deeds as small as an atom will be accounted (99:7-8). Not only actions, but intentions and unrepented thoughts may be considered – though Allah’s mercy and forgiveness are paramount for believers who sincerely repented. Each individual will be judged fairly; “No soul will be wronged in the least” (21:47). Prophets will testify that they delivered the message to their people. On that Day, one’s wealth or status won’t help – only one’s faith and deeds count.
4. The Balance (Mizan): The Quran and Hadith mention a balance or scale on which deeds will be. This symbolizes perfect justice. Good deeds, belief, and repentance will weigh heavy if done sincerely. Evil deeds and disbelief weigh against a person. Those whose scale of good is heavy will succeed; those whose scale is light (because they squandered their life in evil) will be at loss (Quran 23:102-103).
5. Crossing the Bridge (Sirat): Some narrations speak of a razor-thin bridge over Hell that everyone must cross. The faithful cross swiftly or with difficulty depending on their deeds, while the wicked fall. Although not explicitly in the Quran, it’s a common image in Islamic tradition emphasizing how only by God’s light and one’s good works can one safely pass to Paradise.
Heaven and Hell (Paradise and Jahannam)
1. Paradise (Jannah):
Jannah is described as a garden of eternal bliss. The Quran paints scenes of flowing rivers, fruit-laden trees, beautiful mansions, and utter peace. It says, “No soul knows what delights of the eye are kept hidden for them – as a reward for what they used to do” (32:17). So the pleasures of Paradise are beyond worldly comparison, though described in familiar terms to give us an idea (food, comfort, companionship). Righteous men and women will be reunited with their families who also made it to Paradise (52:20-21). There is no hatred, fatigue, or death in Jannah – only happiness grows. One key joy of Paradise is the beatific vision: the believers’ greatest reward will be to see their Lord (as hinted in Quran 75:22-23). Life in Paradise is often called the life real and true. People in Jannah will say, “Praise be to Allah who has removed from us all sorrow” (35:34). There are ranks in Paradise – the more pious, the higher their station. The highest level is Firdaus, which the Prophet said to seek in prayer. The Quran also mentions hur al-ʿayn (pure companions) and splendid youths of service – symbolic of pure companionship devoid of any sin or pain. Importantly, “Gardens beneath which rivers flow” is a repeated Quranic phrase emphasizing both lush beauty and the flow of life.
2. Hell (Jahannam):
Hell is the state of punishment and purification for the wicked. The Quran uses frightening imagery: fire, scorching winds, boiling water, and the bitter tree of Zaqqum (37:62-68). It emphasizes that Hell is not unjust – it is the result of one’s own persistent evil and rejection of truth. “Every time their skins are burnt, We shall replace them with new skins so they may taste the punishment” (4:56) is a verse showing the intensity of suffering for those who truly earned God’s wrath (like tyrants and arrogant rejecters of prophets). However, Islamic theology (especially as explained by this book’s author) says Hell is not necessarily everlasting for everyone. The Quran calls it “abiding for a long time” for some, but reserves eternity mainly for those who utterly refuse faith until death. Many sinners who had even a mustard seed of faith or basic goodness may eventually be forgiven and released after being cleansed. Hell is described as “a remedial punishment”, not vindictive torture. The term “remedial” means it corrects and purifies those who enter it until, by God’s mercy, they can attain salvation. Indeed, one hadith says the Prophet will intercede for believers who had very little good but still had faith, and God will bring them out of Hell. The mercy of Allah is stressed: “My Mercy prevails over My Wrath,” says a holy hadith. Thus, while Hell is terribly real, Islam encourages hope – no one should despair of God’s mercy (39:53). The fear of Hell is meant to deter people from evil, but coupled with the hope of Paradise to encourage goodness.
Why Afterlife Matters Now
The concept of resurrection and judgment instills a strong sense of accountability. A believer looking toward the Day of Judgment is motivated to repent for mistakes, to forgive others (hoping God will forgive them), and to strive for lasting rewards instead of short-lived worldly gains. It gives patience in suffering (knowing any pain borne patiently will be compensated manifold in the hereafter) and courage in doing right (even if it’s unpopular, because God’s approval is the goal). Societally, when people believe an All-Seeing God will hold them accountable, they are less likely to oppress or cheat others, even when they have power and could get away with it in this life.
In sum, Islam’s detailed teachings on life after death create a moral framework where justice is ultimately served and goodness ultimately triumphs. This life is a cultivation ground – as an old saying goes, “The world is the farmland of the hereafter.” Belief in the Akhirah helps one keep life’s ups and downs in perspective. The Prophet Muhammad said, “This world in comparison to the Hereafter is like a drop of water compared to an ocean.” Muslims thus aim to live in a way that when they stand before Allah, their record will allow them, by His grace, to enter an eternal life of peace. As the Quran beautifully states about the souls at peace: “O soul at peace, return to your Lord, well-pleased (with Him) and He well-pleased with you! So enter among My servants, and enter My Paradise” (89:27-30).
SECTION 11
TAQDIR – Predestination & Free Will
Understanding Taqdir
Taqdir in Arabic literally means “to measure out” or to plan. In Islamic context, it refers to Allah’s knowledge, will, and power in determining the course of creation. People often translate it as “predestination” or “fate.” However, it’s crucial to know what it doesn’t mean in Islam: it does not mean that we have no free will or that our choices are pre-written regardless of our intentions. In fact, predestination (qadar) is not counted as one of the mandatory articles of faith in the Quran or the earliest Hadith collections. It became a topic of theological discussion later. Islam strikes a balance between believing that Allah is in ultimate control and that humans are responsible for their actions.
Allah’s Knowledge vs. Human Choice
Muslims believe Allah’s knowledge is complete and encompasses past, present, future – everything. He knows what choices we will make. This foreknowledge, however, doesn’t force our choices. An analogy: a teacher might predict a student will fail an exam due to not studying – the prediction doesn’t cause the failure; the student’s own lack of study does. Similarly, Allah knowing our destiny doesn’t cause us to act a certain way; we act freely, and He knows what we freely choose. The Quran says, “Whoever wills – let him believe; and whoever wills – let him disbelieve” (18:29), indicating personal choice. It also says “Allah does not change the condition of a people until they change what is in themselves” (13:11), tying outcomes to our initiative.
Divine Will and Human Will
How do we reconcile “Everything happens by Allah’s will” with our will? Scholars explain that nothing can happen unless Allah allows it (His universal will), but within that allowance, He gave humans a limited agency (ikhtiyar). Think of the world as a framework Allah set – within it He permits us to move freely to an extent. For instance, if someone intends to do wrong, Allah could stop them (and sometimes He does intervene), but often He lets people carry out their choices as a test. This is why sins and evil acts occur – not that Allah loves them, but He allowed the space for genuine moral choice. The Quran says about unbelievers’ stubbornness: “Allah leaves astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills” (14:4). This means those who persistently choose evil, Allah may justly allow their hearts to stray further as a consequence (He “wills” misguidance for them as a result of their own rejection). Conversely, “those who strive in Our cause, We shall guide them to Our paths” (29:69) – if you will to seek guidance, Allah’s will assists you. In short, our willingness and Allah’s Will work in tandem: we take a step, and Allah either facilitates it or not.
Everything by Measure
The concept of qadar also refers to the idea that Allah created everything with a precise measure and purpose. “He has created everything and ordained for it a measure (taqdir)” (25:2). The laws of nature, our lifespan, our talents – all are part of Allah’s grand design. This encourages contentment: for example, one’s provision (rizq) is considered fixed in measure by God, so one should work hard but not resort to dishonesty out of fear of losing provision. It also gives patience in adversity – knowing “what missed you could not have hit you, and what hit you could not have missed you” (Hadith), meaning events are in God’s control so we shouldn’t fall into endless “what-ifs.”
No Blind Fate in Islam
Islam rejects a fatalistic attitude that negates effort. The Prophet saw a man leaving his camel untied and asked why. The man said, “I put trust in Allah.” The Prophet replied, “Tie your camel first, then put your trust in Allah.” This beautifully sums up that one must act responsibly and then rely on God. The Quran does not support blaming qadar for one’s sins or laziness. It condemns the pagans who said “Had Allah willed, we wouldn’t have done this or that” as a way to excuse themselves (16:35). Everyone is accountable because, as the Quran declares, “The truth is from your Lord.” People cannot use divine decree as an alibi – since God gave guidance and choice, and only He knows the full extent of His decree.
God Does Not Wrong Anyone
Another important point: Allah’s predestination never violates justice. The Quran says, “Allah wrongs not even the weight of an atom” (4:40). If someone goes to Hell, it’s not because they were arbitrarily destined to regardless of their deeds – it’s because they continuously chose evil and rejected warnings, and Allah knew and allowed their path. Had they chosen differently, Allah’s decree for them would be different – but since Allah’s knowledge is timeless, He already knows the end result. This is a subtle concept, but it assures that no one will face punishment saying “I wanted to be good but fate wouldn’t let me.” Each soul will testify to its own choices. On the Day of Judgment, people will even blame themselves or Satan, not Allah (14:22).
Later Debates
Centuries after the Prophet, Muslims debated free will vs predestination. The two extremes were the Qadarites (who emphasized free will to the point of saying humans create their own actions wholly) and the Jabarites (who said humans have no choice, they’re forced). Mainstream Islamic creed (like taught by Imam Ash‘ari) took a middle path: affirming qadar (everything happens under God’s decree) but also affirming kasb (acquisition of actions by human choice). An example often given: It’s like a mother helping her child walk – the child is walking by its own legs, but the mother is holding and ensuring the child doesn’t fall excessively. The child’s movement is its own but also due to the mother’s support. Likewise, our actions are ours, but without God sustaining us (life, ability) we couldn’t do anything.
Practical Benefit of Belief in Qadar
For a believer, accepting taqdir brings peace of mind. When you’ve done your best and something still doesn’t work out, you can say “It was God’s will, there must be some good in it or lesson for me.” It helps avoid crippling regret. The Prophet said, “Strong believer is better than weak believer... Strive for what benefits you, seek Allah’s help, and don’t lose heart. If something (desired) doesn’t happen, don’t say ‘If only I had done this, it would be like that…’, rather say, ‘QaddarAllahu wa mā shā’a fa‘al’ (Allah decreed and He does as He wills). For 'if only' opens the door of Satan’s (whispering).” This teaches to work hard but leave the outcome to Allah. Belief in qadar also prevents arrogance in success (“God’s favor made this possible, not just my genius”) and despair in failure (“maybe God saved me from something or will give me better – I will trust Him”).
In summary, Islamic predestination means Allah is ultimately in control and has measured all things, yet human free will means we make real choices we’re responsible for. It’s like we write our small story, but it fits within God’s big story. Nothing surprises Allah or escapes His plan, yet He does not force us to be good or evil – we choose, and then His plan unfolds accordingly, in a way only He fully understands beforehand. A saying attributed to Ali ibn Abi Talib encapsulates it: “Recognize that you cannot have what Allah has not destined for you, and you cannot miss what He has destined for you.” This belief, properly understood, gives a Muslim confidence and humility: confidence to take action and trust outcomes to God, and humility to know ultimately we depend on God’s grace in all things.
SECTION 12
PRAYER (SALAH)
Importance of Prayer
Prayer (salah) is the second pillar of Islam and a fundamental duty. It translates faith into living practice. The Qur’an links prayer with moral betterment, stating: “Successful indeed are the believers, who are humble in their prayers” — 23:1–2. It also condemns heedless, insincere prayer done for show: “So woe to the praying ones, who are unmindful of [the spirit of] their prayers… and refrain from acts of kindness” — 107:4–7. Thus, prayer must be performed with sincerity and should lead one to do good.
Five Daily Prayers
Muslims perform five prayers at fixed times each day: dawn (Fajr), noon (Zuhr), late afternoon (‘Asr), after sunset (Maghrib), and at night (‘Ishā’). These times span from morning to night. Regular prayer keeps believers connected to God throughout the day and helps restrain them from wrongdoing. The special Friday congregational prayer (Jumu‘ah) replaces the noon prayer on Fridays and includes a sermon.
Purity and Procedure
Before praying, Muslims perform ablution (wudu’) to attain ritual purity. They face the Ka‘bah in Makkah (the qiblah) while praying. Each prayer consists of units called rak‘ahs. In each rak‘ah, the worshipper stands and recites from the Qur’an, then bows (rukū‘), prostrates (sajdah), and sits, making supplications at each posture. Movements are punctuated by saying “Allahu Akbar” (“God is the Greatest”). Each of the five prayers has a set number of rak‘ahs (for example, two for Fajr and four for Zuhr). In congregation, an Imam leads the prayer and everyone follows in unison. Group prayer carries more reward than praying alone and nurtures brotherhood and equality among worshippers.
Call to Prayer and Congregation
Before praying, Muslims perform ablution (wudu’) to attain ritual purity. They face the Ka‘bah in Makkah (the qiblah) while praying. Each prayer consists of units called rak‘ahs. In each rak‘ah, the worshipper stands and recites from the Qur’an, then bows (rukū‘), prostrates (sajdah), and sits, making supplications at each posture. Movements are punctuated by saying “Allahu Akbar” (“God is the Greatest”). Each of the five prayers has a set number of rak‘ahs (for example, two for Fajr and four for Zuhr). In congregation, an Imam leads the prayer and everyone follows in unison. Group prayer carries more reward than praying alone and nurtures brotherhood and equality among worshippers.
Friday and Eid Prayers
The Friday (Jumu‘ah) Prayer is offered in congregation in place of Friday’s Zuhr. It features a sermon (khutbah) by the Imam with guidance and reminders for the community. Attending Jumu‘ah is obligatory for adult men (women may also attend) and it strengthens community bonds. ‘Eid Prayers are special congregational prayers on the two annual festival mornings: ‘Eid al-Fitr (after Ramadan) and ‘Eid al-Adhā (during the Hajj season). Each ‘Eid prayer consists of two rak‘ahs followed by a sermon. On ‘Eid al-Fitr, Muslims give a charity (zakat al-fiṭr) to the poor before the prayer so everyone can celebrate. On ‘Eid al-Adha, those who are able sacrifice an animal after the prayer (commemorating Prophet Abraham’s devotion) and distribute the meat to the needy. The ‘Eid gatherings are joyous occasions of thanksgiving, charity, and unity.
Funeral Prayer
Islam prescribes a simple funeral prayer (salat al-janazah) for a deceased Muslim. It is performed in congregation, standing in rows, without any bowing or prostration. The Imam leads a series of takbirs and collective supplications for the departed and for all believers. This prayer asks God’s forgiveness for the deceased and reminds the community to be patient and seek Allah’s mercy in times of loss.
Additional Prayers
Muslims are encouraged to pray extra voluntary prayers for spiritual benefit. Tahajjud is an optional late-night prayer performed in the last part of the night for those seeking closeness to God. Tarawih are additional nightly prayers in Ramadan, offered after ‘Isha’ (often in congregation). Though not required, these extra devotions increase one’s faith and mindfulness of God.
In summary, Islamic prayer is a comprehensive act of worship involving body, mind, and soul. Performed with the proper spirit, it instills discipline, humility, and kindness, drawing believers closer to God and away from wrongdoing.
SECTION 13
CHARITY (ZAKAT)
Central Role of Charity
Charity is one of the two foremost duties in Islam, alongside prayer. The Qur’an almost always pairs the command to establish regular prayer with the command to give zakat (the obligatory charity). True prayer softens the heart and must lead a believer to help others – “prayer is useless if it does not lead to charity”. In Islam, caring for the needy is not just an extra good deed but a fundamental act of worship. Muslims are also encouraged to give additional charity (sadaqah) freely; even a smile is considered a form of charity in Islam.
Zakat – The Obligatory Charity
Zakat means “purification” and “growth.” It is a mandatory charity that purifies one’s wealth and soul by requiring a fixed portion (generally 2.5%) of surplus assets to be given to those in need each year. Zakat is due on certain forms of wealth such as gold and silver (or cash), commercial goods, and agricultural produce or livestock, once they exceed a minimum threshold (nisab). By Divine command, this portion belongs to the poor and vulnerable. Giving zakat teaches Muslims not to cling selfishly to wealth and fosters generosity and social equality. The Qur’an describes it as a means of cleansing one’s wealth and heart; for example, Allah commanded the Prophet: “Take charity from their wealth to purify them and develop them thereby” (9:103). Refusing to give zakat is considered a serious sin, while those who give are promised great reward and God’s blessings.
Voluntary Charity (Sadaqah)
Beyond zakat, Islam greatly encourages voluntary giving (sadaqah) in all forms. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ said that even a kind word or a smile can be an act of charity. Any help to others, big or small, is valued by God. Muslims are urged to give secretly and openly, according to their means, seeking Allah’s pleasure alone – not praise or recognition. Unlike zakat (which is calculated on one’s accumulated wealth annually), voluntary charity has no fixed amount or time; it springs from compassion and faith. The Qur’an praises those who spend freely in prosperity and adversity, for the benefit of society. Acts of charity include feeding the hungry, clothing the poor, assisting travelers and orphans, and all manner of goodwill. Giving charity is considered an investment in one’s soul and the Hereafter, not a loss.
Social Impact and Wisdom
The Islamic system of charity provides a balanced solution to economic inequality. It neither leaves everything to personal whim (as in unregulated capitalism) nor forces a total state takeover of property (as in radical socialism). Instead, Islam recognizes private property but obligates the well-off to share a portion with those less fortunate. This ensures that wealth circulates rather than remaining hoarded by a few. One classical analogy describes wealth in society like blood in a body: it must circulate to sustain life. Zakat prevents the extremes of poverty and excess from destroying social harmony. By giving the poor their due share, feelings of envy or resentment are reduced, and love and solidarity grow between rich and poor. Islamic teachings also warn against miserliness and greed, declaring that such attitudes lead to spiritual ruin (3:180).
Organization of Zakat
In the time of the Prophet and the early caliphs, zakat was collected and distributed as a public institution. The state (or Muslim community) would appoint officials to collect zakat and distribute it on behalf of the people. The Qur’an itself lists “collectors” as eligible recipients of zakat, indicating that the system was meant to be organized systematically by the community. Where there is an Islamic government, it is responsible for administering zakat fairly. In places without a Muslim government, local communities and trustworthy charitable organizations take up this role so that zakat funds reach the deserving. This organized approach ensures that resources are allocated where needed most and prevents overlap or neglect.
Eligible Recipients
The Qur’an (9:60) specifies categories of people who can receive zakat: the poor, the needy, those employed to collect zakat, those whose hearts need reconciliation (e.g. new Muslims), people in bondage (slavery) or crippling debt, those struggling in the path of Allah, and stranded travelers. In short, zakat funds are to support people in various forms of difficulty or public welfare needs. For example, zakat can be used to help the destitute, to free someone from debt or slavery, or to finance community projects that benefit Islam and society (such as defense or missionary work). Aside from zakat, Islam also encourages waqf (endowments) – donating properties or assets for perpetual public benefit (like schools, hospitals, water wells).
Spirit of Charity
Through zakat and sadaqah, Islam creates a culture of caring and sharing. Helping others is a means of attaining God’s mercy. The Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ said, “Allah will show no mercy to him who does not show mercy to people.” The Qur’an often emphasizes that spending in charity is a sign of true belief and does not diminish one’s wealth; rather, God increases its blessings. Giving is not viewed as a loss but as purification and gain: “Whatever charity you give, He will replace it, for He is the Best of Providers” (34:39). Charity purifies the heart of the giver from selfishness and fills the heart of the receiver with gratitude and hope. It strengthens the bonds of community. Ultimately, a Muslim gives in acknowledgment that all wealth is a trust from Allah. By sharing with others, one thanks God for His bounties. In short, charity is the practical proof of one’s faith: it transforms empathy into action and seeks the pleasure of Almighty God.
SECTION 14
FASTING (SAUM)
Institution of Fasting
Fasting in Islam means abstaining from food, drink, and marital relations from dawn to sunset. It was prescribed by God for Muslims as a month-long annual practice in Ramadan. The Holy Qur’an states: “O you who believe, fasting is prescribed for you, as it was prescribed for those before you, so that you may guard against evil” — 2:183. This shows that fasting is a universal form of worship that predates Islam, meant to cultivate self-discipline and righteousness. Ramadan was chosen as the fasting month because it is the month in which Allah began revealing the Qur’an to Prophet Muhammad. Fasting during Ramadan is one of the five pillars of Islam and is obligatory on every adult Muslim who is physically and mentally capable.
Meaning and Purpose
Islam revolutionized the concept of fasting by emphasizing its spiritual and moral dimensions. The purpose is not suffering for its own sake, but achieving taqwa (God-consciousness) and self-control. By experiencing hunger and thirst, the well-off develop empathy for the poor, and all believers learn patience, gratitude, and reliance on God. Fasting is described as a “shield” in Hadith – protecting a person from sin and the fire of Hell. Muslims are encouraged not only to refrain from physical needs, but also to avoid lies, gossip, quarrels, and other bad deeds while fasting. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ said that if someone tries to provoke you while you are fasting, you should simply respond, “I am fasting,” as a reminder to oneself and others of the spiritual discipline at hand. Thus fasting trains a believer to control both physical appetites and emotional impulses, fostering a more virtuous character.
Social Benefits
Fasting has great social value. During Ramadan, families and communities come together to break the fast each evening (iftar), often sharing food with neighbors and the poor. Charity and hospitality increase in this month; Muslims are urged to feed others and also to give the post-Ramadan charity (zakat al-fitr) to the needy so that everyone can celebrate ‘Eid. This communal aspect strengthens bonds and promotes a spirit of generosity and unity. Physically, fasting (when practiced moderately and with proper nutrition at meal-times) can impart health benefits – giving rest to the digestive system and helping detoxify the body. However, the primary benefits of fasting are spiritual and moral. By temporarily denying the body, one’s dependence on Allah becomes clearer, and appreciation for everyday blessings (like food and water) is renewed.
Exemptions and Flexibility
Fasting is only required for those who can manage it without undue harm. The sick, the elderly, pregnant or nursing women, travelers, and others in difficult circumstances are exempt from fasting during Ramadan. The Qur’an permits these individuals to make up the missed fasts later or feed poor people as compensation (see 2:184–185). Children are not required to fast until they reach maturity (puberty). Islam’s approach is not to cause hardship: “Allah desires ease for you, not hardship” (2:185). If one accidentally breaks the fast (e.g. forgetfully eats or drinks), the fast can continue without penalty – it is forgiven as a mistake. Only deliberate breaking of the fast without valid reason is sinful and must be made up later (with possible additional expiation if done intentionally).
Voluntary Fasts and Extra Devotions
Beyond the Ramadan obligation, Muslims may observe optional fasts throughout the year. The Prophet ﷺ often fasted on Mondays and Thursdays, and he recommended fasting on certain days like the 10th of Muharram (Ashura’) and six days of Shawwal (the month after Ramadan). Though not obligatory, these extra fasts earn spiritual reward and cultivate discipline. During Ramadan nights, Muslims also perform special congregational prayers (Tarawih) and spend time in Qur’an recitation and remembrance of Allah. Some devout worshippers seclude themselves in a mosque during the last ten nights (i‘tikaf) to focus entirely on worship. This period includes Lailat al-Qadr (the “Night of Power”), which the Qur’an describes as “better than a thousand months” (97:3). Muslims spend this night in intensive prayer and supplication, seeking Allah’s forgiveness and mercy, as it commemorates the night the first Qur’anic revelation was sent down.
In summary, fasting in Islam is a holistic form of worship that touches the body, mind, and soul. It teaches self-restraint, empathy for the hungry and poor, gratitude for God’s blessings, and a strong sense of unity among the community. After completing the month of Ramadan, Muslims celebrate ‘Eid al-Fitr with joy, thanking Allah for the strength to fulfill their duty and hoping for spiritual renewal and forgiveness of sins.
SECTION 15
PILGRIMAGE (HAJJ)
Meaning and Obligation
The Hajj (major pilgrimage to Makkah) is the fifth pillar of Islam and a once-in-a-lifetime duty for every Muslim who is physically and financially able. The Qur’an declares: “Pilgrimage to the House is a duty which people owe to Allah—whoever can find a way to do it” — 3:97. The Ka‘bah (the cubic “House” of Allah in Makkah) is the focal point of the Hajj. Pilgrims from all over the world gather there each year in the month of Dhu al-Hijjah (the last Islamic month) to perform a series of sacred rites. The Hajj is not a new institution; it continues the tradition of Prophet Abraham, who dedicated the Ka‘bah for the worship of the One God. Pilgrimage reminds believers that all humanity is on a journey to God, and it symbolizes the unity and equality of all Muslims before Him.
Origins of the Ka‘bah and Hajj
Islamic teaching traces the Ka‘bah’s origin to Prophet Abraham (Ibrahim) and his son Ishmael, who built it as the first house of monotheistic worship. Over time, the Arabs lapsed into idolatry and filled the Ka‘bah with idols, but the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ restored it to the pure worship of Allah. Far from being a “pagan” ritual, the Hajj is seen as a revival of Abraham’s mission. The Qur’an had honored Makkah and the Ka‘bah even in the earliest revelations, and when the Muslims were in Madinah, God directed them to turn their prayer direction (qiblah) from Jerusalem to Makkah, marking the Ka‘bah’s central role in Islam. Once Makkah was liberated from idol-worship, the full Hajj rites were established in Islam. Thus, the Islamic pilgrimage is a continuation of Abraham’s pilgrimage, cleansed of any idolatrous elements.
Rites of the Pilgrimage
The Hajj takes place over five days (8th–12th of Dhu al-Ḥijjah) and involves several sacred rites mostly around Makkah. Pilgrims enter a state of consecration (ihram) at the start, wearing simple white garments and refraining from luxuries or quarrels. This symbolizes humility and equality. They begin by circling the Ka‘bah (tawaf) and walking between the hills of Safa and Marwah (sa‘y), recalling the faith and perseverance of Hagar (Hājirah), Abraham’s wife. The pinnacle of Hajj is the Day of ‘Arafat (9th Dhū al-Ḥijjah), when all pilgrims gather on the plain of ‘Arafat and stand together in earnest prayer and supplication, seeking Allah’s forgiveness. After sunset, they move to Muzdalifah and then to Mina. At Mina, pilgrims cast pebbles at three stone pillars symbolizing Satan, reenacting Prophet Abraham’s rejection of the devil’s temptations. They also perform a sacrificial slaughter of an animal at Mina (in commemoration of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, which God replaced with a ram). The meat from this sacrifice is mostly distributed to the poor. Finally, the pilgrims return to Makkah to perform a farewell tawaf (circling of the Ka‘bah) to complete the Hajj.
Spiritual and Social Significance
The Hajj takes place over five days (8th–12th of Dhu al-Hijjah) and involves several sacred rites mostly around Makkah. Pilgrims enter a state of consecration (ihram) at the start, wearing simple white garments and refraining from luxuries or quarrels. This symbolizes humility and equality. They begin by circling the Ka‘bah (tawaf) and walking between the hills of Safa and Marwah (sa‘y), recalling the faith and perseverance of Hagar (Hājirah), Abraham’s wife. The pinnacle of Hajj is the Day of ‘Arafāt (9th Dhū al-Ḥijjah), when all pilgrims gather on the plain of ‘Arafat and stand together in earnest prayer and supplication, seeking Allah’s forgiveness. After sunset, they move to Muzdalifah and then to Mina. At Mina, pilgrims cast pebbles at three stone pillars symbolizing Satan, reenacting Prophet Abraham’s rejection of the devil’s temptations. They also perform a sacrificial slaughter of an animal at Mina (in commemoration of Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son, which God replaced with a ram). The meat from this sacrifice is mostly distributed to the poor. Finally, the pilgrims return to Makkah to perform a farewell tawaf (circling of the Ka‘bah) to complete the Hajj.
Lasting Impact
The pilgrimage leaves a lasting impact on the believer. Pilgrims typically return home spiritually renewed and humbled, striving to maintain the spirit of brotherhood and devotion they experienced. They often describe Hajj as the peak religious experience of their lives. The annual ‘Eid al-Adha festival at Hajj’s end – marked by the offering of sacrifices and distribution of meat to the poor – allows all Muslims, even those at home, to share in the spirit of sacrifice and gratitude. In essence, the Hajj combines acts of profound worship with a powerful affirmation of humanity’s oneness under Allah. It is a journey that transforms the pilgrim’s outlook, reminding them that all people stand equal before God and that life’s true purpose is to worship Him and serve His creation.
SECTION 16
JIHAD (Striving in the Way of Allah)
True Meaning of Jihad
The Arabic word jihad means “to strive” or “to exert one’s utmost effort.” In Islamic terms, it signifies striving for a righteous cause, which can take many forms. Importantly, jihād does not mean “holy war” against unbelievers – Islam never teaches fighting people simply for having different beliefs. The Qur’an does not promote violence as a virtue; rather, jihad is a broad concept of struggling in the path of God. The Prophet Muḥammad ﷺ called the personal struggle against one’s own evil inclinations the “greater jihad.” By contrast, taking up arms is a conditional and lesser form of jihad, allowed only in self-defense or to combat clear oppression. Muslims endured persecution peacefully for years in Makkah. Permission to fight came only after they were exiled to Madinah and further attacked. Even then, the Qur’an strictly forbade aggression: “Fight in the way of Allah those who fight you, but do not go beyond limits” — 2:190. Warfare in Islam is therefore defensive and limited; mere disbelief or difference of religion is never a justification to harm anyone
Jihad in the Quran
Many verses of the Qur’an speak of doing jihād, but context is key. Most of these verses refer to struggling by preaching the truth, by resisting temptation, or by spending one’s wealth for the needy. For example, during the Makkan period, the Prophet was commanded: “And strive hard against them by means of it (the Qur’an) a great striving” — 25:52. That meant to do jihad with the Qur’an’s message – through peaceful preaching, not fighting. Likewise, God promises: “And those who strive hard for Us, We shall certainly guide them in Our ways” — 29:69. This is the spiritual and intellectual jihad that forms the core of Islamic life. When Muslims later had to defend themselves in battle, that physical struggle was also termed jihad fi sabilillah (striving in Allah’s cause) because they fought for justice and freedom of faith, not conquest or coercion. Even in warfare, the Qur’an never condones transgression. The Prophet Muhammad established strict rules of combat: no killing of non-combatants, no harm to women, children, elders, or monks, no unnecessary destruction of crops or infrastructure. He always preferred peace over conflict – the Qur’an tells believers, “If the enemy inclines toward peace, then you too incline toward it” (8:61).
Clearing Misconceptions
The idea of “spreading Islam by the sword” is a historical myth unsupported by Islamic teachings. The Qur’an plainly says, “There is no compulsion in religion” — 2:256, and the Prophet never forced people to convert. Unfortunately, in later centuries some Muslim empires and jurists did expand the concept of jihad into an aggressive war doctrine. These interpretations arose from historical circumstances, not the Qur’an or Prophet’s example. In fact, classical scholars often highlighted that fighting is permitted only to stop persecution or aggression, not to compel faith. Apostasy (leaving Islam) is not given any worldly punishment in the Qur’an – it is a sin accountable to God alone. Only if an apostate actively joined the enemy at war did some jurists treat it as treason punishable by the state, and even then Prophet Muhammad often did not execute apostates, granting them freedom or time to repent. Islam draws a clear line between peaceful disagreement in belief and actual hostility or sedition.
Striving in Daily Life
In practice, a Muslim’s greatest jihad is the struggle to live righteously. Working hard to support one’s family through honest means is a form of jihad. Seeking knowledge is also considered a jihad, as it strengthens the community and one’s faith. The Prophet said, “The best jihad is to speak a word of truth before a tyrannical ruler,” emphasizing moral courage over violence. He also told some of his companions returning from battle that they had come back from the lesser jihad (warfare) to the greater jihad (the struggle against one’s own soul). Even performing Hajj was called an excellent jihad for women, since it requires patience and devotion. These examples show that jihad is primarily about moral and spiritual effort: resisting evil temptations, improving society through good works, and defending truth and justice through words and deeds. Armed struggle is a last resort and strictly regulated.
In summary, jihad in Islam is a positive, multi-faceted concept. It is the ongoing struggle of believers to be true to their ideals, to establish good and oppose wrong, and when necessary, to defend their community against aggression. Far from being a license for violence, true jihad demands restraint, mercy, and adherence to higher principles even in conflict. Through jihad, Muslims strive to achieve the Qur’anic ideal of enjoining what is right and forbidding what is wrong, for the betterment of themselves and humanity.
SECTION 17
MARRIAGE & FAMILY LIFE
Importance of Marriage
Islam highly values marriage as the proper institution for family life and the fulfillment of human needs. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ said that marriage is half of one’s faith. The Qur’an describes the husband-wife relationship as one of deep companionship and mercy: “And among His signs is that He created spouses for you from yourselves that you may find tranquility in them, and He has put love and mercy between you” — 30:21. Unlike traditions that promote celibacy, Islam encourages marriage and raising a family as the natural state for a balanced, virtuous life. Remaining unmarried by choice is generally discouraged. Sexual relations are permitted only within marriage, and both spouses are expected to remain faithful to each other.
Rights and Responsibilities of Spouses
A Muslim marriage (nikah) is a civil-religious contract requiring the free consent of both bride and groom. The bride’s consent is mandatory – forced marriages are invalid in Islamic law. As part of the contract, the groom gives the bride a mahr (dower), a valuable gift that becomes her own property. Husband and wife have complementary rights and duties. The husband is responsible for financially maintaining the family and protecting it, while the wife is entrusted with the nurturing of the home and children. However, the Qur’an emphasizes kindness and equity: “Live with them in kindness” (4:19) is addressed to husbands. The Prophet Muhammad’s example showed gentleness and respect toward his wives; he said “The best of you is the one who is best to his wife.” Decisions in family life should be made by mutual consultation (shura) between spouses. Both husband and wife must guard each other’s dignity and privacy – they are likened to “garments” for one another (2:187), meaning each covers, protects, and beautifies the other. Islam permits limited polygamy (up to four wives) only if the husband can deal justly with each; otherwise, “only one” wife is allowed (Qur’an 4:3), indicating that monogamy is normally expected.
Divorce and Its Regulation
While Islam stresses that marriage is meant to be a lasting bond, it recognizes that some marriages cannot continue. Divorce (talaq) is permitted as a last resort when genuine reconciliation efforts have failed. The Prophet ﷺ said, “Of all permissible things, divorce is the most disliked by Allah.” The Qur’an lays down procedures to ensure thoughtfulness and fairness in divorce. For example, a husband who initiates a divorce must do so in two separate occasions (with a waiting period in between) to allow time for reflection – a third pronouncement finalizes it. An obligatory waiting period (‘iddah, roughly three months) follows the divorce announcement, during which the wife remains in the home and the couple may reconsider. It is forbidden for a husband to harass or mistreat his wife to force her to seek a divorce or give up her rights. The Qur’an instructs: “Either retain them in kindness or release them in kindness” — 2:229. If a divorce proceeds, the husband must not reclaim the dower he gave his wife. Women also have the right to seek divorce (called khul‘), in which case she may return the dower to end the marriage. Furthermore, a woman can petition an Islamic judge for divorce (faskh) in cases of abuse, abandonment, or the husband’s failure to fulfill obligations. After a divorce is final, both the man and woman are free to marry new spouses (after the ‘iddah for the woman). Islam tries to balance the right to divorce with safeguards to prevent abuse – keeping the door open for saving a marriage, but allowing separation when necessary.
Family Ethos
Islam regards the family as the foundation of society, built on mutual love and responsibility. Mothers in particular are given great honor; he taught that “Paradise lies under the feet of mothers.” Children are likewise expected to respect and care for their parents, and parents must raise their children with kindness and proper morals. A Muslim family is to be governed by kindness, modesty, and moral integrity, so that the home becomes a place of peace and spiritual growth
SECTION 18
ECONOMICS & FINANCE MATTERS
Wealth as a Trust
Islam views wealth as a blessing from Allah and a trust to be managed responsibly. The Qur’an repeatedly stresses economic justice and caring for the poor as fundamental religious duties. Muslims are encouraged to earn a lawful livelihood through honest work and trade, but they must remember that God is the true Owner of all wealth. One’s earnings should be halal (permissible) – obtained by honest means – and one should spend in ways pleasing to Allah, including fulfilling the rights of the less fortunate. Hoarding wealth selfishly or squandering it wastefully are both condemned. Instead, wealth should circulate to benefit all, and neither hoarding nor extravagant waste is acceptable
Prohibition of Usury (Riba)
A cornerstone of Islamic finance is the prohibition of riba, often translated as usury or interest. The Qur’an declares, “Allah has allowed trade and forbidden usury” — 2:275. Charging interest on loans – especially to those in need – is seen as a form of exploitation that enriches the lender unjustly. Money in Islam should be a medium of exchange, not a commodity to earn guaranteed profit regardless of risk. Muslims are encouraged to lend to others without interest (considered an act of charity), or to invest in profit-and-loss sharing arrangements rather than interest-based loans. By forbidding interest, Islam promotes more equitable financial relationships and compassion toward those in need. The Qur’an urges creditors to be lenient or even forgive a debtor in hardship (2:280).
Fair Trade and Anti-Corruption
Islam emphasizes honesty and fairness in all commercial dealings. The Qur’an says, “Give full measure and weight with justice, and do not defraud people of their goods” (7:85, 11:85). Cheating customers by using false measures or hiding product defects is a grave sin; Surah al-Mutaffifin (chapter 83) opens with a stern “Woe to those who give less [than due]” — 83:1. The Prophet ﷺ warned that a person who cheats in business “is not one of us.” Bribery and corruption are strictly forbidden. The Qur’an commands: “Do not consume one another’s wealth unjustly, nor use it to bribe the authorities so that you may sinfully consume a portion of others’ wealth” — 2:188. Gaining advantage through illicit payments undermines justice and public trust. Thus, a Muslim in business or public office must uphold integrity, knowing that Allah watches all financial transactions.
Property and Inheritance
Islamic law grants individuals the right to private property and to profit from their labor, but this right is balanced by obligations to family and society. Inheritance laws in the Qur’an ensure that a deceased person’s wealth is distributed among their heirs rather than concentrating in one person’s hands. Notably, Islam for the first time gave women a definite share in inheritance (daughters, wives, mothers, etc.), whereas previously they often received nothing. For example, a daughter is entitled to half the share of a son in the same situation, which reflects that the son bears greater financial responsibility in the family. The guiding principle is that each close relative – male or female – has a fair portion so that the wealth benefits the whole extended family. Zakat (the annual charity) further ensures that a portion of the wealthy’s surplus is redistributed to the poor and needy, acting as a safety net and levelling mechanism in society.
Moderation in Spending
The Qur’an teaches moderation and balance in consumption. “Eat and drink, but do not be extravagant; surely He (Allah) does not love the extravagant” — 7:31. Muslims are warned against miserliness as well: “Let not your hand be chained to your neck (in stinginess), nor stretch it out completely (in wastefulness)” — 17:29. The Prophet ﷺ cautioned that the love of wealth can distract from one’s duty to God. The remedy is frequent charity and remembering the Hereafter. Ultimately, Islam’s economic vision aims at a just circulation of wealth, where individuals can prosper through lawful enterprise, yet the vulnerable are protected and social welfare takes precedence over pure profit. Fulfilling contracts and trusts is a religious obligation (5:1), and helping those in need is an investment in one’s soul. By adhering to divine guidance in financial matters, Muslims seek to ensure that their earnings are blessed and that their economic activities contribute to a just, compassionate society.
SECTION 19
FOOD, DRINK & CLEANLINESS
Permissible and Prohibited Foods
Islam permits Muslims to enjoy all wholesome and pure foods (tayyibat) and prohibits only what is harmful or unclean. The Qur’an explicitly forbids certain items: “Forbidden to you is carrion (dead animals), and blood, and the flesh of swine, and that over which any name other than Allah has been invoked...” — 5:3. Pork is banned because the pig is considered unclean and its meat unhealthy; blood and carrion (unslaughtered dead animals) carry impurities and disease. Also forbidden is meat from any animal sacrificed to idols or in the name of any other deity. All other foods are generally allowed except those that cause intoxication or definite harm. If a person is truly compelled by extreme hunger with no lawful food available, the Qur’an makes an exception: one may consume a prohibited item just enough to survive, without willful disobedience. Thus, in dire necessity, “necessity makes the forbidden lawful” – Islam does not intend to starve someone in hardship (see 2:173).
Halal Slaughter
For meat to be permissible (halal), Islamic law requires that the animal be slaughtered in a humane and ritually proper manner. The slaughterer (Muslim, or a Jew or Christian) must invoke the name of Allah at the time of killing, then swiftly cut the throat, allowing the blood to drain. This method (dhabihah) ensures most blood – which is impure – leaves the body, and it minimizes suffering to the animal. Muslims are taught to use a sharp knife and not let the animal see the blade until the moment of slaughter. The dietary laws of Islam resemble those in the Torah; for example, pork and blood are also forbidden in Judaism. The Qur’an explicitly allows Muslims to eat the lawful meat prepared by “People of the Book” (Jews and Christians) (5:5), as long as it was not dedicated to idols. Fish and seafood are halal without any special procedure. Hunting game is permitted under certain conditions (such as pronouncing God’s name when shooting an arrow or releasing a hunting animal).
Intoxicants and Gambling
Islam completely prohibits all intoxicants, whether alcohol or mind-altering drugs. Alcoholic drinks are singled out in the Qur’an as a great evil: “O you who believe, intoxicants and games of chance… are only an uncleanness, the devil’s work, so shun them so that you may prosper” — 5:90. Initially, Muslims were simply advised not to pray while intoxicated, but later revelation banned intoxicants outright. This major social reform freed Arabian society from the widespread alcoholism of that era. Islamic teachings also forbid gambling (maysir), which is often mentioned alongside wine in scripture. Both vices are addictive and sow enmity and hatred among people. A Muslim must not produce, sell, or serve alcohol either, as the curse of alcohol involves everyone in its supply chain. By avoiding intoxicants and gambling entirely, Muslims protect their mental health, family stability, and community welfare.
Cleanliness and Hygiene
Islam is often said to be a religion of purity. The Prophet ﷺ declared that “cleanliness is half of faith.” The Qur’an commands believers to maintain cleanliness of body and dress, especially for prayer (e.g. 2:222). Muslims perform ablution (wudu’) by washing the face, hands, arms, and feet before the five daily prayers, and they bathe thoroughly (ghusl) after sexual intercourse or menstruation before resuming worship. If water is not available, one may perform tayammum (dry ablution with clean earth) as a substitute. Beyond ritual purity, personal hygiene is heavily emphasized: the Prophet advised trimming the nails and removing bodily hair regularly, brushing the teeth (he used a miswak twig), and washing one’s hands frequently. Islamic etiquette teaches covering one’s mouth when sneezing, not spitting in public, and keeping one’s environment clean. The Prophet ﷺ warned against contaminating water sources or public pathways. Overall, these teachings anticipated many modern principles of public health. Muslims are encouraged to be moderate in eating and to give thanks to Allah for the food and drink He provides, recognizing that physical health and spiritual purity go hand in hand.
SECTION 20
GOVERNANCE & JUSTICE
Principles of Islamic Governance
Islam’s ideal state is a community founded on justice, consultation (shura), and the rule of law under God. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ in Madinah established a model where Muslims and non-Muslims lived together under a social contract (the Constitution of Madinah) guaranteeing mutual rights and duties. Leadership in Islam is a trust, not a privilege – the Caliph (leader) must be chosen by the community’s consent and is accountable. Abu Bakr RA, upon becoming the first Caliph, famously said: Obey me as long as I obey Allah and His Messenger. If I disobey them, you owe me no obedience. This encapsulates that no ruler is above the law or beyond criticism. The Qur’an commands rulers: “...and when you judge between people, judge with justice” — 4:58. An Islamic government must ensure security, uphold justice for all citizens, and protect the fundamental rights that Islam emphasizes (such as life, religion, property, intellect, and family). Non-Muslim citizens are entitled to protection and freedom of worship in an Islamic state; the Qur’an forbids compulsion in religion (2:256), so people of other faiths cannot be forced to convert. Historically, non-Muslims under Muslim rule (dhimmis) paid a tax called jizyah in lieu of military service and in return received state protection and exemption from zakat.
The Judicial System
Islamic law (Sharī‘ah) requires an independent judiciary and due process. Judges (qadis) must rule by the Qur’an and Prophetic teachings and must not be influenced by bribes or personal bias. The Qur’an warns against bribery: “Do not consume others’ wealth unjustly, nor use it to bribe authorities to deliberately consume a portion of people’s wealth sinfully” — 2:188. In Islamic courts, the burden of proof is on the accuser and a defendant is innocent until proven guilty. The Prophet ﷺ said: “Avoid legal punishments on Muslims as much as possible. If there is any doubt, let them go. For it is better for a ruler to err in mercy than err in punishment.” All people – rich or poor, Muslim or non-Muslim – must be treated equally before the law. Once, when some tried to intercede so that a noblewoman guilty of theft would be spared punishment, the Prophet rebuked them, saying that even if his own daughter committed theft, he would enforce the law on her. This equality and impartiality in justice is a hallmark of Islamic governance. The Sharī‘ah also emphasizes forgiveness: in cases of murder or injury, the Qur’an allows the victim (or family) to demand qisas (equal retaliation), but strongly encourages forgiving the offender in exchange for blood money or as charity. The Qur’an says forgiving and reconciling is better for the believers (42:40).
Criminal Punishments (Hudud)
In classical Islamic law, a few major crimes have fixed punishments (hudud) prescribed by the Qur’an or Hadith. These include theft, highway robbery, adultery/fornication (zina), false accusation of unchastity (qadhf), and drinking alcohol. The Qur’an, for example, prescribes cutting off the hand for theft (5:38) and 100 lashes for zina (24:2) – but these penalties were enforced only under extremely stringent conditions. The Prophet ﷺ said, “Ward off the hudud from the Muslims as much as possible; if there is any doubt, release the accused.” Thus Islamic courts historically set a very high bar of proof and often found ways to avoid imposing hudud. Petty theft, ambiguous cases, or theft in hunger did not qualify for the hand amputation. Zina (adultery) required either a voluntary confession or four adult eyewitnesses to the act – a virtually impossible standard unless the offenders were flagrantly public. In practice, severe hudud punishments were rarely carried out; they mainly served as deterrents and underscored the gravity of those sins. When society maintains public decency and provides for basic needs (as Islam requires), the occurrence of hudud crimes is naturally minimal.
Mercy in Legal Practice
Islamic justice is tempered by mercy and the aim of rehabilitation. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ, in his capacity as judge and head of state, generally preferred clemency. He would encourage offenders to repent privately rather than incur a punishment. He also forgave many personal wrongs committed against him. The Qur’an teaches Muslims to respond to evil with good (41:34) and that Allah loves those who are forgiving and benevolent (24:22). Even when punishments were administered, they were done without cruelty or humiliation. There is no torture in Islamic law, and the Prophet forbade mutilating bodies or harming innocents even in wartime. The ultimate goal of the Shai‘ah is to establish a righteous society where people adhere to moral principles out of faith, not fear. The state’s role in Islam is not only to punish wrongdoers but also to create conditions that minimize crime – through moral education, enjoining good values, reducing poverty (via zakat and social welfare), and ensuring justice at all levels. In an environment where justice and compassion prevail, the need to enforce punishments becomes exceedingly rare. Islam’s vision of governance is thus one where justice is firmly upheld, but mercy is never forgotten, reflecting the divine attributes of The Just (al-‘Adl) and The Merciful (ar-Rahim).
SECTION 21
MORALS & ETHICS IN ISLAM
Character Building
Islam’s teachings place tremendous emphasis on cultivating a virtuous character. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ said, “I was only sent to perfect good morals.” The Qur’an defines truly faithful people as those with integrity and sincerity: “O you who believe, why do you say what you do not do? It is most hateful in the sight of Allah that you say what you do not do.” — 61:2–3. Sincerity (ikhlas) is a cornerstone of Islamic ethics – believers must seek to please Allah, not to show off. Acts of worship like prayer and charity are only valued when done with pure intentions and followed by genuine kindness. The Qur’an praises those who give to others selflessly: “And they give food, out of love for Him, to the poor and the orphan and the captive. [They say:] We feed you only for the sake of Allah – we desire from you neither reward nor thanks.” — 76:8–9. Islam thus condemns hypocrisy and ostentation, warning that God knows what is in every heart.
Virtues Encouraged
Nearly every virtue finds strong encouragement in Islam. Honesty and truthfulness are commanded – the Prophet ﷺ taught that truth leads to righteousness and righteousness leads to Paradise. Justice is a fundamental value: “...Be just; that is closer to piety…” (5:8). Mercy and kindness are highly emphasized. The Prophet was sent as “a mercy to all the worlds” (21:107), and he said, “Allah will not show mercy to a person who does not show mercy to others.” Kindness to parents, relatives, neighbors, orphans, and the poor is repeatedly stressed in the Qur’an (see 4:36). For example, we are told not to even say “uff” (a word of impatience) to our aging parents, but to speak to them respectfully (17:23). Generosity is a prized virtue: believers are urged to spend out of what they love on those in need and to give cheerfully and secretly, for Allah’s pleasure. Forgiveness and controlling one’s anger are also virtues the Qur’an associates with the righteous (3:133–134). Humility and modesty are central: “Surely Allah does not love anyone proud and boastful” (31:18). The Prophet ﷺ said, “Whoever humbles himself for the sake of Allah, Allah will elevate him.”
Vices Condemned
The Qur’an and Hadith also warn against many evil traits. Lying and breaking promises are signs of hypocrisy; the Prophet said a believer may commit sins but “he cannot be a liar.” Backbiting and gossip are likened to “eating the flesh of your dead brother” – a disgusting image the Qur’an uses as a warning (49:12). Slander, malicious suspicion, and spying into others’ affairs are prohibited in the same verse. Envy and arrogance are diseases of the heart that led to the fall of Satan (he refused to bow to Adam out of pride). The Prophet said, “No one who has an atom’s weight of arrogance in his heart will enter Paradise.” Hatred and ill-will should be purged through forgiveness and praying for others. Unjust anger must be controlled – a Hadith states, “The strong man is not the one who overpowers others, but the one who controls himself when angry.” Islam also forbids cruelty to animals, abuse of servants or subordinates, and any form of oppression. The Prophet cursed those who take bribes or give bribes, those who deal in usury, and those who steal the property of orphans. The overall message is that a Muslim must guard against both major sins and subtle bad habits, always seeking Allah’s help in purifying the soul.
Integration of Faith and Morality
In Islam, worship and ethics go hand in hand. The ritual practices (prayer, fasting, charity, etc.) are meant to instill moral discipline and God-consciousness (taqwa). The Qur’an says that establishing prayer “restrains one from shameful and unjust deeds” (29:45). Fasting likewise is intended to develop self-restraint (2:183). A person who truly fears Allah will show it in how he treats people – Islam does not separate “religious” duties from ethical behavior. The Prophet Muhammad ﷺ was known as al-Amin (“the Trustworthy”) even before his prophethood, showing that honesty and good character are themselves forms of worship. His wife ʿAishah RA, when asked about his character, replied, “His character was the Qur’an,” meaning he embodied the Qur’an’s teachings of compassion, justice, and humility. Muslims are encouraged to remember Allah often, as this awareness motivates them to act righteously even when no one else is watching. Ultimately, the measure of one’s piety is one’s conduct. The Prophet ﷺ said, “The most beloved of you to Allah are the best of you in character.” By striving to beautify their character with virtues and to shun sins and bad manners, believers seek to attain what the Qur’an calls the highest status: being among the muhsinin – those who do good to others purely for Allah’s sake.
SECTION 21
SOURCES & REFERENCES
All the content is drawn on two primary types of sources: (1) The Holy Qur’an, and (2) the sayings and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad (Hadith), along with classical works of Islamic scholarship. All Qur’anic references in this book are given by surah (chapter) and ayah (verse) number. For example, a citation like 2:183 refers to Qur’an, chapter 2, verse 183. If a verse range is given (e.g. 2:183–185), it means from verse 183 through 185 of that chapter.
When Hadith literature is cited, short titles or abbreviations for the major Hadith collections are used in bold. The six canonical Hadith books often referenced are Bukhari (Sahih al-Bukhari), Muslim (Sahih Muslim), Abu Dawud, Tirmidhi, Nasa’i, and Ibn Majah. References to Hadith usually include the collector’s name and details to locate the saying. For example, a citation Bukhari, book: ‘Knowledge’, 3:39 indicates the Kitab al-‘Ilm (Book of Knowledge) in Imam Bukhari’s collection, chapter (or Hadith) number 39. Sometimes additional notations like MK 3:103 or AHS 1:72 are included – these refer to widely used English translations (e.g. Muhsin Khan’s translation of Bukhari, or Abdul Hamid Siddiqui’s translation of Muslim). The numbers correspond to book and hadith numbers in those editions, to help readers find the exact text.
Classical Islamic texts and commentaries are also referenced. For instance, Rāzī might refer to Fakhr al-Din al-Razi’s Tafsīr al-Kabīr (Qur’an commentary), and Muir, The Caliphate would denote a work by the orientalist scholar Sir William Muir. Short citations are used once the full title has been introduced. Many Arabic book titles are given in transliteration for simplicity.
In summary, Quranic references are given by numerical notation of chapter and verse. Hadith references use bolded abbreviations of the source collection plus identification of the book/chapter or hadith number. All such references in this volume have been chosen to be from authentic and authoritative sources. Readers are encouraged to refer to these original sources (whether scripture or Hadith or historical works) for further context and study. The careful citation method used in this book makes it possible to verify each important statement or ruling in the light of Islam’s primary texts.
